Introduction
Since 2002, initial teacher trainees in England have been required by the government to meet national Standards, which include learning to teach pupils with English as an additional language. The concept of a ‘trouble-maker Standard’ emanated from an interview with a director of a Post Graduate Certificate in Education course. It reflects the pre-dominant tone of concern, by the participating initial teacher trainers and the trainees, over the dichotomies and deficits associated with the national Standards relating to learning to teach pupils who have English as an additional language (Teacher Training Agency, 2002; Appendix One). The research also analyses the positive strategies or dividends related to these particular standards during the process of initial teacher training in four Higher Education Institutions and four secondary schools in the South of England.
This paper emerges from the end of the second year of studying for a PhD. The data collection took place from June 2004 to June 2005. The final analysis is about to begin. As a result, the paper presents the research design and some initial thoughts on preliminary findings.
Background
This study springs from a life-time’s involvement with teaching and learning in relation to pupils who communicate in more than one language, in this context bilingual pupils. The research explores how initial teacher trainees meet the national Standards required by the Teacher Training Agency (2002) in relation to pupils who have English as an additional language (EAL). The relevant Standards are shown in Appendix One. The study examines the context of this training and poses the question as to whether English as an additional language is considered as part of a continuum of bilingualism or whether it remains as a deficit model firmly embedded in a monolingual framework.
The term bilingual in this paper refers to the ability to communicate in more than one language. It encompasses multi-lingual and does not imply equal proficiency in both or all languages. The term bilingual is used as a positive attribute and refers to any person who uses ‘more than one language in their everyday life’ (Wiles, S. 1985). It takes into consideration the framework of three dimensions employed by Rampton (1990) and Leung et al, (1997). The three dimensions are the ‘expertise’, or the degree of proficiency; the ‘affiliation’ and the ‘inheritance’ aspects. These dimensions include the affective relationship with other languages as well as the purely cognitive dimension (Frederickson and Cline, 2002:273).
In the context of education in England and Wales, the term English as an additional language (EAL) has evolved from the original terminology used in the 1960s and 1970s of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and subsequently, English as a Second Language (ESL). English as a Foreign Language derived from the colonial activity of teaching English to ‘foreigners’. Clearly, people settling in Britain were no longer using English as a foreign language. The concept of English as a Second language did not recognise the multi-lingual attributes of many of the learners. The inclusion of the phrase additional language was an attempt in the 1980s to reflect a more positive view of the linguistic achievements of multi-linguists. However, the emphasis still very firmly lies on the acquisition of English and the need for support rather than a natural development of linguistic skills.
Since 2000, all initial teacher trainees in England are required to meet National Standards before gaining Qualified Teacher Status (QTS). The emphasis in the Standards relating to pupils with English as an additional language is very firmly on ‘need’ and ‘support’ rather than recognition of linguistic ability or celebration of diversity (TTA, 2002).
The Teacher Training Agency Survey for Newly Qualified Teachers (2004), (Appendix Two), reveals dissatisfaction on the part of the respondents in relation to learning to teach pupils with English as an additional language. This gives cause for concern. The key research questions therefore explore the underlying attitudes and beliefs as well as the actual strategies employed during the initial teacher training period in relation to learning to teach bilingual pupils.
Key Research Questions
l Why are the Standards relating to bilingualism frequently perceived as problematic?
l How do initial teacher trainees learn to teach bilingual pupils in secondary schools in England?
l What support do initial teacher trainees need and receive from their partner schools and the Higher Education Institutions?
l What policies, beliefs, and strategies underpin this support?
Research design
The why, how, and what, nature of the questions led to a qualitative approach. The quantitative annual Teacher Training Agency national surveys provide statistics that indicate trends. This study explores the underlying features of these trends. The questions sprang from prior professional experience and the implications of the Teacher Training Agency surveys (TTA, 2004). In order to answer the first three key research questions, it was necessary to involve professionals and trainees in the field. Arguably, the fourth question could be answered through an analysis of documentation. However, in order to improve validity, it was important to triangulate the evidence gained between methods (Delamont, 1992:159). Therefore the documentation was checked with first-hand observations of practice and interviews.
A major component missing from the Teacher Training Agency quantitative survey was any indication or exploration of the underlying attitudes and beliefs that led to the negative responses in this area. This omission was of particular interest to the researcher, who wanted to explore the framework for learning to teach bilingual pupils. The framework for learning establishes the context for training and, in terms of socio-cultural theory, is highly influential in determining the outcomes (Hawkins, 2004:4). In order to analyse the learning framework for initial teacher training, it seemed pertinent to examine specific contexts in detail.
The choice of a case study methodology emerged from the specific focus and context and the small scale nature of the study. The purpose of this multiple-site case study (Stake, 1978; Burgess, 1984; Creswell, 1998; Bassey, 2003) was to describe and analyse the strategies used by schools and Higher Education Institutions when helping initial teacher trainees work with bilingual pupils.
A bounded case study (Stake, 1978, 1995) was designed to examine the particular phenomenon of learning to teach bilingual pupils in the state secondary school setting in the South of England. It involves four sets of partner institutions.[1] It is bounded in three major ways, as the following table shows.
Fig: 1 Boundaries of the case study
The first boundary (1.a) was selected to explore a gap in research relating to in-depth analysis of the issues arising from the National Standards relating to learning to teach pupils with English as an additional language detailed in Appendix One. The second numerical consideration (1.b.) was based on the desire to conduct an in-depth study with sufficient breadth for comparison.
The geographical and contextual boundaries arose from the desire to study issues relating to bilingualism outside of the major conurbations. This was also a major influence in the decision to target schools with less than 30% of pupils designated as pupils with English as an additional language. Most research in the field of the education of bilingual pupils and pupils with English as an additional language has been conducted in the major cities both in the United Kingdom. There have been exceptions where studies have taken place in ‘all-white’ schools (Gaine, 1987; Sleeter, 1994). However, the emphasis, in much of the research in this field, relates to inner urban schools with high proportions of pupils with English as an additional language (Shain, 2003). As all trainees are required to meet the same Standards nationally, it seemed pertinent to explore examples that reflected a more average experience in terms of numbers of pupils with English as an additional language in the school.
The choice of secondary schools (3a) was based on the premise that research into pupils with English as an additional language is more prevalent at primary school level than at secondary level (Bourne and Flewitt, 2002; Smyth, 2002; et al). The further boundary of state schools was essential in terms of comparison. The study of private sector schools, where it is not compulsory for teachers to comply with the national Standards, would constitute a further case study.
The present model of partnership between Higher Education Institutions and schools, (Furlong, 2000a), predicated the decision to limit invitations to partner institutions only. It was vital in terms of triangulation and verification to involve institutions that actually work closely together.
The Data Collection
The data collection took place over an extended period of a year, between June 2004 and June 2005. It involved four secondary schools and four Higher Education Institutions. It included twenty three semi-structured interviews; five focus group interviews; four classroom observations; reflective diaries and an analysis of international, national and local documentation and policy.
Initial contact with the prospective institutions was made through ‘gatekeepers’ (Walker, 1978; Burgess, 1984b; Hitchcock and Hughes, 1989:59). It was important that the ‘gatekeepers’ were senior managers so that they had the authority to give permission for participation in the study. Both Higher Education Institutions and schools are hierarchical organisations. These key informants were either directors of the training programmes in the Higher Education Institutions or school co-ordinators, who are responsible for professional development within the schools.
The potential for professional development was a key factor in gaining access. The participating trainers appreciated the possibility of using involvement in the research as part of their training and awareness raising programme (Richardson, 2004).
A final step in the process was feedback. The researcher’s prior experience created sensitivity to issues of feedback. There is a strong tendency, especially with stressed professionals to hear only negative comments (Burgess, H., 1985). However, honest feedback is essential if the research is to remain valid and ethical. Informal feedback occurred as an on-going process during the data collection period. This contributed ideas to future interviews (Hitchcock and Hughes, 1989:83). Formal feedback sessions will take place during the data analysis as part of validating the research findings from the participants’ point of view (Gitlin et al, 1992:28).
Data Analysis
The data analysis process started with transcribing the interviews. At this point scripts were highlighted for key issues. Blue highlighting indicated positive contributions. Yellow highlighted comments with negative connotations. Pink drew attention to use of language. These initial categories were subjective but allowed the researcher to have an overview of the transcript and quick access to emerging key concepts and themes (Wilkinson, 2004).
The transcripts were then loaded into N6 software and coded as described below. Working with the initial codes, allowed for expansion, alteration, or omission of ideas. This ‘open coding’ (Strauss, 1987) led to a more refined process of using categories to generate further conceptual frameworks (Coffey and Atkinson, 1996:48).
The computational environment used was developed by Richards and Richards in 1995. At that time it was called NUD-IST (Non-Numerical, Unstructured Data Indexing, Searching and Theorising). The up-dated programme is referred to as N6. This software allowed for storing, coding, and easy retrieval of the transcripts from the twenty-three semi-structured individual interviews and the five focus group interviews. The six diaries returned from the trainees were also entered into this data base.
The advantages and disadvantages of using a computer programme and the benefits of the particular software were carefully considered. The warnings of possibly distancing the researcher from the data, (Bathmaker in Opie, 2004:175-176), proved unfounded. The ease of access facilitated returning to the scripts. Functions, such as memos and reports on individual nodes encouraged an in-depth exploration of the data.
Personally transcribing the interviews as soon as possible after the conversation took place was a key part of the data analysis process. This allowed for direct recall and helped avoid misinterpretation where the recording was slightly indistinct.
The process of transcribing helped trigger ideas. These were immediately noted in a key issues file on the computer. This procedure, along with highlighting phrases in relation to positive or negative comments; use of language; and phrases worthy of further exploration, acted as an initial very broad coding activity. Later in the process, this helped quick access to key quotations, as described in the previous section.
The completed transcripts were then entered into N6 for more detailed coding. The coding developed into two free and eighty-three tree nodes. The free nodes were used to store data on the participating schools and Higher Education Institutions. The tree nodes allowed for comparison across all participating institutions and interviewees.
Following Evans (2000) suggestion of thinking in terms of drawers, three major areas for coding emerged: Multilingual; Monolingual; Initial Teacher Training. The Cartesian concept of dualism influenced the choice of potential opposing points of view. Therefore, multilingual and monolingual had the same sub-headings of knowledge and understanding; attitudes and values in order to allow comparison across categories of participants who considered themselves to be bi- or multilingual and those who were monolingual.
The Initial Teacher Training was sub-divided into holistic and fragmented in order to compare statements and attitudes that reflect these two opposing views of initial teacher training. As interviews progressed, the fragmented heading changed to atomistic. This seemed to more accurately describe the process dictated by a competence model that insisted on trainees meeting pre-determined National Standards.
The final analysis will employ a grounded theory approach (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Glaser, 1992), with the theory emerging from the data.
Relevant Literature
This study spans the fields of education and socio-linguistics. The literature review therefore encompasses both aspects of the study, as well as research methodology and design. For the purposes of this paper, the two main strands are briefly explored.
Implications of Bilingualism
Globally, bilingualism or multi-lingualism is the norm (Baker, C. and Prys-Jones, S., 1998; Romaine, 1989, 1994). However, despite the multi-cultural and multi-lingual background of the United Kingdom, England, in particular, remains a predominantly monolingual society in terms of what is valued and acknowledged.