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Variability in the Acquisition of Sentential Negation by Adult Swahili Learners
Mary Gathogo
Ohio University
Introduction
My area of research is second language acquisition (SLA) and the focus is on acquisition of negation by native English speakers who are learning Swahili as their second or third language. A lot of research has been done on the acquisition of negation in naturalistic environment but little research has been done in formal/instructional settings. My observation is that learners draw on different forms of negation, using them correctly and incorrectly in similar contexts with almost equal frequency. Some learners seem to have acquired a particular form of negation at one point but revert to an incorrect form in the next instance. I am interested in the organization and reorganization of these forms, their progression and regression, plus the changes that learners display in the acquisition of Swahili negatives. For this reason, my study will look into how the acquisition of Swahili negation develops in and among adult learners of Swahili.
Key words
Variability: The way that use of language may change; a learner may exhibit grammatical use of language in one context and use ungrammatical language in a similar or different context.
Intra- individual variation: how one learner may produce different forms of the same thing (in this case, grammatical structure).
Inter- individual variation: how different learners produce different forms of the same thing (in this case, grammatical structure).
Pedagogical practice: Approach to and methods of teaching.
JUSTIFICATION
This is important for two reasons. First, it extends the findings of previous research on the acquisition of negation, which suggested that acquisition of negative forms in various languages follows a specific sequence, with learners going through similar stages before full acquisition occurs. Since many studies focus on acquisition of negation in naturalistic settings, this study will offer a ground for comparison of the acquisition of negation in natural setting and in formal. Next, an understanding of how learners acquire the various forms of negation can inform pedagogical practices which could result in re-assessment of teaching methodology, sequence or general approach to teaching this particular morphosyntactic form.
While a lot of studies have been done on the acquisition of L2, few have focused on the acquisition of Swahili in general and sentential negation in particular. Also, a lot of studies on acquisition are concerned with variables such as age, motivation, context and environment and their influence on the development of the interlanguage. Such studies assume that variability always has a certain cause outside of the learner’s cognitive domain (Vespoor 2008). However, these factors do not work in isolation of the learner. This study will focus on inter-and intra- individual variation, in attempt to discover how and when different negation forms change and develop, and the influence they have on each other. Bot et al. (2007) notes that “variability in itself can give important information about the nature of the developmental process” (p.14), would help in the interpretation of these individual variations.
Many studies in SLA conclude that there are definite stages of development in the acquisition of given morphosyntactic structures (Dimroth 2008). While such studies have made important contribution to the understanding of language acquisition, they have not examined individual differences related to rate and path of acquisition. Learners take different paths of development that differ markedly with those of their counterparts, therefore, some will get to the defined stages at different times and will have followed different processes of acquisition. It is for this reason that this study will be examining variability within and among individuals, within the already defined phases of development.
LITERATURE REVIEW
A considerable number of studies into the acquisition of a second language relates to the acquisition of negation. While a number of these have had their focus on the morphosyntactic features of negation (Meisel, 1997; Perales, Pilar, May, &Liceras, 2009), many more have focused on the developmental stages in relation to age (Singleton, 2001; Munoz, 2006; Cenoz 2003; ), the first language (Milon, 1974; Cancino, Rosansky & Schumann, 1978) and formal instruction (Salaberry, 2000). A number of these conclude that the acquisition of negation progresses in a sequence, from one stage to the next.
The study conducted by Giuliano (2000) on negation in nonnative Italian is of particular relevance to this study. In this study, Giuliano investigated five untutored learners from different L1 backgrounds learning Italian. He analyzed data from their natural conversations and found that learners of Italian progressed “in a cumulative process encompassing four successive stages” (p.431). He defined these stages in terms of when one of the five varieties of negation was introduced into the learners’ interlanguage.From these data, he observed that there was considerable reduction in the use of previously acquired forms when the learners transitioned to the next phase. He attributed the transition from one phase to the next to such factors as universal processes, sociolinguistic factors (eg?) and the type of input the learners received. This suggests that external factors independently shape the learners path of language acquisition and that variability always has a cause. Current research should focus on the learner’s cognitive organization and reorganization of input, since the cognitive system continually interacts with external factors such as environment, age, and input, in the development of language.
Dimroth (2008), after investigating the effect of age on the process of L2 acquisition of negation and finiteness, concluded that Russian L1 adolescent and adult learners of German in naturalistic setting, progressed through clearly defined stages with the first being characterized by positioning of lexical verbs after the negator, the second by the acquisition of the perfect tense and the auxiliaries which appear before the negator, and the third, by lexical verbs occurring in a finite position (p. 121). She carried out a longitudinal study on two untutored Russian beginners (age 8 and 14) acquiring German in Germany and compared her results with those published on adults’ acquisition of negation and finiteness. She noted that though the adolescent and the adult learners took different paths and used different strategies, they went through similar phases. As for the child learner in her study, Dimroth observed that she reached the third stage before the second. Her findings also suggest a smooth transition from one stage to the next even if the order is reversed, like it is for the child learner. She suggested that a “study of the process and not only the end product would be more informative” (p.147).
In their study, Cancino, Rosansky and Schumann (1978) investigated the development of the English negative construction in six Spanish speakers with the aim of identifying universal stages. From their data, which comprised of recorded speech in natural environment, they concluded that nonnative English learners go through four stages in the acquisition of negation. Comparing their data with that of an earlier study into the developmental stages in L1, they noted that there was considerable similarity between the development of negation in L2 and L1; each subject went through one stage before proceeding to the next stage. Though Cancino et al. (1978) show that learners progress from one stage to the next in a sequential fashion, it is evident from their data that the learners demonstrate variability, which these researchers do not address in their interpretation (Verspoor at al. 2008). One of the subject’s (Juan) data, for instance, shows that his use of constructions in the first 14 weeks of recording varied greatly but then stabilized after that. On the other hand, that of another subject, Mata, shows regression when he first uses three different forms of negation but by week 10, he has reverted to the frequent use of no V construction but again by week 14, this form nearly disappears. Another of these subjects starts off with two basic constructions and continues using these throughout the interview period. As these data attest,even though learners may go through the general stages of development, such development does not happen in a linear order (Verspoor et al. p.219).
These studies conclude that the acquisition of negation happens in a stable, neat and progressive order. However, further research needs to be done in order to examine variability within these phases as individual learners tend to move in and out of them, exhibiting mastery of a target form at one point only to regress and use a form that is far from the target at the next point. Research on variability within and between individuals would be a good starting point as this can be a rich source of information which can help “(a) predict change, (b) analyze change and (c) understand change mechanisms)” (Verspoor, Lowie & Dijk, 2008).
This study, therefore, seeks to examine intra- and inter-learner variability in the acquisition of negation by adult learners of Swahili as a second language. In contrast with previous studies, this current study will focus on acquisition of negation in an instructional setting. A study of this kind can inform teaching because “if teachers knew the order in which students naturally tend to learn language structures, they could work with the process” (Dulay, Burt, & Krashen, 1982 p 54). In the light of this, this study seeks to find out whether variability exists in the different phases of acquisition and what forms of negation show progression and which ones show regression.It also aims at discovering which negative forms stabilize sooner than others. Current studies need to examine the whole process including the transitory stages to determine whether the transition is always as smooth process including the transitory stages to determine whether the transition is always as smooth as previously suggested.
Research on variability within and between individuals would be a good starting point as this can be a rich source of information which can help “(a) predict change, (b) analyze change and (c) understand change mechanisms)” (Verspoor, Lowie & Dijk, 2008). The study further concludes that acquisition of negation happens in a stable, neat and progressive order. Research should also focus on variability within these phases, as learners tend to move in and out of them, sometimes producing near target or target forms at one point, only to regress and use a form that is far from the target at the next point.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. Does the acquisition of Swahili negative forms progress linearly or non linearly?
2.a) Are there particular negative forms that adult learners of Swahili show progression in? Which
ones are they?
b) In using which forms do learners show most regression?
3. Do some forms stabilize sooner than others? Which ones are they?
METHODOLOGY
Subjects/sources
The participants in this study will be about 25 elementary and intermediate level Swahili learners at Ohio University ranging between 19 and 24 years of age. They are studying Swahili as a second or third language. The subjects will be both males and females. They are drawn from a variety of majors and are at either undergraduate or graduate level.
Materials/instruments
Three tools will be created. The first will be a grammaticality judgment test. There will be 12 sentences and the subjects will judge each one as correct or incorrect. The other one will be a multiple-choice task. Learners will choose from the three choices given, the correct negative form to complete the 12 sentences given. These choices will have the correct answer and two incorrect forms that they are likely or known to produce. They will also have a sentence construction task. They will be given 12 pairs of different pictures. Under one, there will be an affirmative sentence that reflects what is in the picture. There will be no sentence under the other picture in the pair. They will be expected to construct a negative sentence to show the contrast between the first picture and the second. An example will be provided as a guide to this task.
In designing the tools, I took into consideration three different forms of negation: copula ni, verbs, the verb “to have” (kuwa na) and negation in tensed clauses (present continuous, present perfect, simple past, simple future). I also considered the different participant markers: 1st person singular and plural, 2nd person singular and plural and 3rd person singular and plural). This is because the nature of negative forms of the target language mainly depends on these. Before designing the tasks, I gave a pilot task to the subjects and from this I identified errors. I also consulted Swahili instructors on which errors learners make in the use of negative forms. From these two identified forms I identified forms, which served as distracters in the true experiment. On completing the tasks, I asked a native speaker to read the instructions to determine their precision and clarity. The instructions were revised to reflect suggested changes. I also asked a Swahili instructor to assess the tasks.
Procedure
Students will be asked by the researcher to give consent to their class work being used for research purposes. After that they will be asked to sign consent forms. Collection of data will begin at the end of the Fall quarter. They will then be given a questionnaire on demographics. Data will be collected in three waves. Participants will be given the three tasks in one sitting. Since this is not a test per se, the amount of time to do the tasks will not be specified to avoid creating anxiety. They will also be notified that the tasks will not be graded to reflect on the quarterly grade. This will be repeated after 10 weeks and then again after another 10 weeks. The tests will be checked for correct and incorrect responses after each sitting and the grades recorded..
Type of data
The data will comprise of test scores from the three tasks. The tests will be checked for correct and incorrect responses. Raw scores will be calculated as follows: incorrect response= 0 point, correct response =1. Only negative forms will be counted for the raw scores.
ANALYSIS
The data will be analyzed using a statistical analysis tool. A descriptive analysis will be done. The means and standard deviation of the tasks will be calculated. To determine if there are significant differences among three scores, a two-way ANOVA with a one within subject factor will be used. A two way ANOVA with a between groups factor will be used. To compare the two levels, that is elementary and intermediate, a two-way ANOVA with a between groups factor will be used.
Analysis will also include comparing individual’s use of Swahili negative forms within the task (i.e has the learner used the correct form in similar items in this particular task?) Comparison will also be done between tasks (has the learner maintained correct usage of forms they have used correctly before or not?). Based on the categories above, averages will be found for the correct and incorrect forms to determine which ones are consistently correct, and those that are consistently incorrect usage.
ANTICIPATED PROBLEMS/LIMITATIONS
One of the major problems I anticipate is attrition. Since data will be collected over a period of time, I might have subjects dropping from the study in the course of time. Another limitation is lack of sources from which to get ideas on methodology. This is because most studies in language acquisition use natural speech, which is not possible in this study, and having to create suitable classroom tasks is a real challenge.
Most studies in this area target a few individuals, sometimes only one, so this study is not limited in terms of numbers. However, I can only get so much from the learners because of their limited exposure to the target language. Previous studies have focused on second language learning in its immediate environment and therefore the subjects’ productions are more authentic and richer. Eliciting such data through a controlled environment like it is in this case, may not give a true picture of what the learners’ interlanguage is like. In addition, the length of study is short and therefore, it may not be enough time for learners to have fully acquired the target forms. Finally, since the tasks will be repeated three times, there is the danger of practice effect. It might not be possible to know to what extent better performance in subsequent waves is reflective of acquisition or practice.
EXPECTED FINDINGS
I expect to find a lot of variation, with individuals using correct forms and incorrect forms in similar contexts. There will also be variability between individuals with some using correct forms and others using incorrect form. This is expected in the use of negation in tensed clauses, especially the retention or dropping of the affirmative present tense marker -na- and the use of present continuous tense final negative marker -i. I also expect that there are forms that will show earlier stability. I also expect to find higher correct usage of copula ni as opposed to negation forms in tensed clauses. I also expect that learners will acquire different negative forms at different rate.