CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1Background to the Study

Non-formal education (NFE) refers to any organized education activity operating outside the established formal education system, and targeting the learning needs of certain population groups (Republic of Kenya, 2006). NFE is probably as old as humankind’s sedentary history. When our earliest ancestors abandoned a hunting and gathering culture for a settled lifestyle, they also ushered in rudiments of NFE (Owiny, 2006).

In Japan, the terakoya were ancient, private NFE classes for both children and adults that expanded throughout Japan during the seventh to nineteenth centuries. The terakoya contributed to the high literacy rate in Japan before the modern education system. Without this unique NFE system, the country would not have had the necessary foundation for its massive economic power (UNESCO/JICA, 2004).

NFE is also available in African countries. For instance specialists such as blacksmiths, herbalists and administrators imparted their knowledge and skills to apprentices through NFE. The Bahima and Karamojong of Uganda are illustrative. Children and adults learnt and still learn, through participation and under supervision of experienced and expert adults, to develop and display appropriate knowledge, skills and attitudes (Owiny, 2006). Another example comes from Malawi where NFE started in 1947 when the colonial government introduced a partnership with churches for a traditional literacy programme. Non Formal Education was used with a focus on youths and adults aged 15 years and above. This was the case due to the realization that formal basic primary education was ineffective due to high drop out rates. (Jeke, 2006).

Kenya’s NFE programme can be traced to the first Young Farmers Club (YFC), which was started in Nyeri (Kipkorir, 1974). It was believed that the YFC would encourage young people to take up agriculture after learning in school instead of drifting to towns (Kipkorir, 1974). The YFC and their subsequent counterparts 4K Clubs which were initiated in 1963 were all part of activities to supplement formal education. The acronym, 4K, stands for Kuungana (to come together), Kufanya (to do), Kusaidia (to help) Kenya (Sifuna, 1974). The Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Husbandry established them so as to teach rural youth better farm and home practices which would contribute towards better nutrition, health and higher standards of living (Kipkorir, 1974).

Non Formal Education (NFE) activities particularly in urban areas increased from the 1990s due to three contributory factors. First population had grown as indicated by the 1989 population census. Second, the burden of poverty became heavier due to the World Bank imposed Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) in the 1980s and the consequent cost sharing initiative in schools and other public services. Third, Kenya participated in the World Conference on Education For All in Jomtien, Thailand, in 1990. There the World Declaration on Education For All was adopted stating that everyone has a right to education. Moreover, the importance of NFE was highlighted and a global strategy for strengthening it was provided. Article 5 of the World Declaration on Education For All, which calls for expanding the means and scope of basic education, states that “the diversity, complexity and changing nature of basic learning needs of children, youth and adults necessitates broadening and constantly refining the scope of basic education” (Inter-Agency Commission, 1990).

The enactment of the Children’s Act was also a most significant legislation (Republic of Kenya, 2000). It characteristically affirmed that every child is entitled to basic rights, including education. The importance of both formal and non formal education was again reemphasized. Free primary education was formalized under Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on A Policy Framework for Education, Training and Research (Republic of Kenya, 2005 a). In the policy document the importance of NFE was recaptured as well as available opportunities, challenges and strategies. One strategy is the KenyaEducation Sector Support Programme 2005-2010 (KESSP) (Republic of Kenya, 2005 b). Indeed KESSP remains the single largest investment programme undertaken by the Government in the education sector with twenty-three costed investment programmes including NFE.

The launching of Free Primary Education (FPE) in 2003 was considered as one of the biggest milestones in post independence educational history of Kenya. The implementation of FPE raised the number of pupils from 5.9 million in 2002 to 7.2 million in 2003 and then to 8.2 million in 2008 in public schools (Republic of Kenya, 2008). Despite the increased numbers of learners, the free primary education policy did not lead to the absorption of all school going age children. Classes are overcrowded and the problem continues to persist (Republic of Kenya, 2008). According to KESSP 1.7 million children and youth (1.5 million children aged 6-14 and 200,000 youth) are unable to access formal education due to socio-economic reasons. These disadvantaged groups such as orphans, street children/youth, child workers, nomadic children and adolescent parents were and still are likely unable to access education through formal school delivery channels (Republic of Kenya, 2008). The government’s intervention measures include the publication and implementation of the Non-Formal Basic Education Syllabus in two volumes (Republic of Kenya, 2006). Volume I covers academic subjects: English, mother tongue, Arabic, Kiswahili, mathematics, science, social studies, Christian Religious Education and Islamic Religious Education. Volume II contains technical/trade subjects: masonry, welding and fabrication, garment making, woodwork, basic geometry, art and craft, motor vehicle mechanics, agriculture, entrepreneurship and home science. As an alternative to formal education, NFE attempts to address these and related problems (Republic of Kenya, 2006).

According to the Republic of Kenya (2006), the objectives of non formal education in Kenya are to, among others:

  • Acquire literacy, numeracy, creativity, manipulative and communication skills;
  • Appreciate and respect the dignity of work and facilitate self employment; and
  • Develop a desirable and adoptive attitude to life, based on social, moral and spiritual values.

Few institutions, even within Nairobi province, have adopted the NFE syllabus in Kenya (Ministry of Education / UNICEF, 2005). The number of non formal schools in Nairobi province is shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Distribution of NFS by Division in NairobiProvince

Division / Number of non formal schools / Percent
Dagoretti / 53 / 12.8
Embakasi / 89 / 21.6
Kamukunji / 4 / 0.9
Kasarani / 126 / 30.7
Langata / 60 / 14.6
Starehe / 43 / 10.4
Westlands / 36 / 8.8
Total / 411 / 100

Source:Directory of Non Formal Education (NFE) Institutions in NairobiProvince, (MoE/UNESCO, 2005).

Table 1 shows the division with the largest number of non formal schools in Nairobi province as Kasarani and the one with the lowest as Kamukunji. The FPE policy was expected to solve the twin fundamental problems of access and retention in NFE. However, many children still remain out of school because of household poverty, HIV and AIDS pandemic, child labour, rigidity of Kenya’s education system, negative cultural practices and inadequacy in the number of primary school places in the formal system (Republic of Kenya, 2006).

Despite endeavours from both the government and development partners to improve the NFE sub-sector, several major challenges remain in the implementation of the curriculum. Many of the NFE institutions in Nairobi province are located in geographical and social situations which hardly offer appropriate conditions for educational programmes (MoE and UNICEF, 2005). Embakasi division, Nairobi province, has the second largest percentage (21.6%) of NFS in Nairobi province. It is home to slums such as Mukuru kwa Njenga, Matopeni, Maili Saba, KCC, Kiangombe and Kiambiu. Many pupils in these slums are likely to benefit from non formal education.

Embakasi division, Nairobi province, might be well endowed with resources required for effective implementation of the non formal technical curriculum. However, there is limited documentation, if any, on how the non formal technical curriculum has been implemented in various parts of Kenya, including Nairobi province. Similarly, there are limited studies, if any, conducted in Embakasi division, on the implementation of the non formal technical curriculum. Against this background, there was need to investigate the factors influencing the implementation of non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools in Embakasi division. In particular, there was need to have a study focusing not only on how the pupils but also non formal technical curriculum implementers namely teachers, headteachers/managers and non formal education officers influence the implementation of technical curriculum in non formal primary schools.

1.2Statement of the Problem

Efforts by the Government of Kenya to achieve UPE notably through FPE appear to be faltering (The Standard, January 10, 2009, pg 7). Poor quality primary schooling and limited access to secondary school due to the Government’s failure to control irregular increases of fees in secondary schools have in particular contributed to high drop out rates in slum schools. Non formal schools which also abound in poorly endowed environments seem to be better alternatives (MoE/UNICEF, 2005).The Government itself is paying increasing attention to the NFE subsector notably through the publication of the Non Formal Basic Education Syllabus comprising academic and technical subjects (Republic of Kenya, 2006) Prior to this NFS were following different curricula including the formal basic primary schools syllabus. The non formal technical education curriculum is new and more practical.

The problemof this study was therefore to find out the factors which influence the implementation of the non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools in Embakasi division, Nairobi province.

1.3Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate factors that influence the implementation of non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools in Embakasi division, Nairobi province.

1.4Objectives of the Study

The specific objectives were to:

i. Establish how learning/teaching facilities influenced the implementation of the non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools.

ii.Investigate how teachers’ individual characteristic influenced the implementation of the non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools.

iii.Find out how teachers’ professional and academic qualifications affected implementation of non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools.

iv.Find out how student characteristics such as age, gender and home background affected implementation of non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools.

v.Determine the role of quality assurance officers in the implementation of non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools.

vi.Find out how government policy on non formal education influenced implementation of non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools.

1.5Research Questions

The main research questions were:

i.To what extent do learning/teaching materials influence implementation of the non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools?

ii.How do teachers’ individual characteristics influence the implementation of the non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools?

iii.How do teachers’ professional and academic qualifications affect the implementation of the non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools?

iv.How are student characteristics a factor in influencing the implementation of the non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools?

vHow do quality assurance officials influence implementation of non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools?

viTo what extent does government policy on non formal education influence implementation of non formal technical curriculum in non formal primary schools?

1.6Significance of the Study

This study will be informative to the government, development partners and other stakeholders in the NFE subsector in terms of policy, administration and provision of facilities and materials required for successful implementation of non formal technical curriculum in Kenya. In addition, challenges exposed in this

study are likely to inform the government on the necessity of facilitating appropriate funding and staffing for implementing non formal technical curriculum in Kenya.

The study findings are also expected to inform curriculum specialists and publishers on the type of teaching-learning materials required for effective implementation of non formal technical curriculum. The study results and recommendations would form part of the literature on non formal technical curriculum implementation in Kenya. That way, the general public would be informed better about the existence of non formal curricula in Kenya and hence contribute more to the subsector’s success.

1.7Limitations of the Study

The wide range of technical subjects (ten in number) and location of some of the non formal schools in slum areas were among key limitations to the study. Some respondents’ negative attitude towards the researcher hindered 100 per cent success rate in collection of data. Careful planning was necessary to overcome such challenges in the study. Moreover, there was a paucity of literature in general and research in particular about non formal curriculum implementation in Kenya. Indeed, there is very little documentary evidence on the implementation of NFE in Kenya and it was extremely difficult to make reference to empirical data on implementation of non formal technical curriculum in Kenya.

1.8Delimitations of the Study

The research was restricted to non formal primary schools in Embakasi division, Nairobi province. The area has the second largest number of NFS in Nairobi province (MoE/UNICEF, 2005). Attention was on non formal schools using the Non Formal Basic Education Syllabus and specifically the non formal technical syllabus (Republic of Kenya, 2006). The study sampled those directly involved in the implementation of NFE curriculum. These were teachers, headteachers/managers students and relevant education officers. Teaching-learning materials and facilities required in implementation were assessed as well. By so doing, it was possible to collect data on NFE teachers and students’ characteristics, availability of teaching-learning materials for NFE, and level of supervision and support of non formal technical education by education officialsin Embakasi division, Nairobi province.

1.9Basic Assumptions

This study assumed that:

a)Non formal schools in Embakasi division, Nairobi province, were using the non formal education syllabus.

b)Information provided by the teachers, headteachers/managers, education officials and students in Embakasi division, Nairobi province, would be correct and valid.

c)Teachers, headteachers/managers/sponsors, education officials and students in Embakasi division, Nairobi province, would freely volunteer themselves to participate in the study.

1.10Definition of Key Terms

The following key terms are defined as used in the context of this study.

  • Access refers to removal of all barriers that prevent someone from getting education.
  • Curriculum implementation refers to the teaching/learning process involved in achieving the goals of technical subjects in non formal primary schools.
  • Non formal education is the organized teaching-learning activity operating outside the established formal education system and targeting the learning needs of certain population groups (Republic of Kenya, 2006).
  • Non formal learnersrefer to children aged 6 to 17 years participating in non formal education.
  • Non formal primary education is that system of education implementing the non formal basic education syllabus.
  • Non formal primary school refers to a school offering non formal academic and technical curriculum.
  • Non formal technical curriculum refers to specific technical subjects offered in non formal primary schools: agriculture, art and craft, basic geometry, entrepreneurship, garment making, home science, masonry, motor vehicle mechanics, welding and fabrication, and wood work.
  • Retention refers to ensuring those who enroll in school go through the full cycle of education, notably basic education without any wastage.

1.11Organization of the Study

This study has been organized into five chapters. This chapter introduces the study, and provides a background by presenting a general development of NFE with specific reference to Kenya. Other key aspects of the chapter include Statement of the Problem, Research Questions, Purpose and Objective of the Study, Research Questions, Significance of the Study, Limitations and Delimitations of the Study, Basic Assumptions and Definition of Operational Terms. Chapter Two offers a literature review pertaining to NFE with a focus on Kenya but zeroing on non formal technical education curriculum in Nairobi province. It also covers factors influencing curriculum implementation, theoretical and conceptual framework. Chapter Three presents the methodology for the study.It covers research design, target population, sampling procedures, research instruments, data collection andanalysis methods. Chapter Four covers the results of the study and data interpretations while Chapter Five focus on discussion on the research findings, summary, conclusions and recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.0Introduction

This section discusses NFE literature from a global perspective, narrowing down to a Kenyan perspective. Factors influencing curriculum implementation, a theoretical perspective and a conceptual framework are discussed.

2.1Non Formal Education Issues in a Global Perspective

Much has been written about NFE in many parts of the world. The available literature, however, is extremely limited on how learning-teaching facilities and materials influence the implementation of non formal technical education curriculum. Another issue which has not received adequate attention is how teachers’ characteristics such as age, gender, professionals and academic qualifications affect the implementation of non formal technical education curriculum. Other issues pertinent to non formal technical education curriculum implementations have not been satisfactorily addressed either. The following literature review will demonstrate the paucity of information relating to factors influencing non formal technical education curriculum implementation.

Studies by Coombs (1968; 1974; 1985) showed how lack of educational equality, shortage of funds and unemployment were the manifestations of the educational crisis of the 1960s. He proposed the adoption of NFE either as an alternative or as a complement to formal education.