Age, Gender and Marital Status in Personal Growth Initiative

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AGE, GENDER AND MARITAL STATUS IN PERSONAL GROWTH INITIATIVE

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Igbokwe D., Agoha B., Adeusi, S., Obidiran, D., Akindele, Z., & Abiodun, G.

Department of Psychology

Covenant University Ota

Ogun State, Nigeria

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Abstract

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This study examined the influence of age, and marital status on personal growth initiative. Participants included 50 males and 99 females aged between 18 and 65 years in age ( 30.54, SD= 12.03). Seventy-nine (53.02 %) of these were married and seventy (46.98 %) were single. It was hypothesized that neither age, gender, or marital status would influence PGI. The result of a three-way between groups ANOVA showed no significant effect of the three independent variables on the dependent variable, personal growth initiative, F (1, 138) = .000, p = .998. However, an examination of the mean scores showed that single males and females aged 33 and above evinced greater personal growth initiative than married males and females aged 33 and above. This result suggests that cultural expectations may play important role in personal Growth Initiative. We think that personal growth initiative carries important implications for national development and stability.

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Keywords: Personal growth initiative, dependency, mental health.

Author Contact:Igbokwe David, Department of psychology, Covenant University Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria.Phone: +2347032606393. Email.

Agoha Benedict. Department of psychology, Covenant University Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Phone: +2348023213131. Email: (Corresponding Author)

Adeusi Susan. Department of psychology, Covenant University Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Phone: +2348059490326 Email:

Obidiran Damilola. Department of psychology, Covenant University Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Email: damilola.obidiran@ covenantuniversity.edu.ng

Yabilsu, Sharon. Department of psychology, Covenant University Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Email: sharon.yabilsu@ covenantuniversity.edu.ng

Akindele, Zainab. Department of psychology, Covenant University Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Phone: +2348144090898 Email: zainab.

Gesinde, Abiodun

Affiliation: Department of psychology, Covenant University Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. Phone: +2348034718536. Email: abiodun,

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Introduction

Growth is a major need that drives human behaviour. This has been highlighted in the need theories (Rogers, 1961; Maslow, 1980). Rogers believed that humans are rational beings motivated by the need for self-actualisation, i.e. desire to be the best they can or achieve full functionality. The individual would have better psychological outlook on life the closer s/he is to self-actualising. But self-actualisation changes through the lifespan. In infancy, a person’s need for self-actualization is only related to being fed and cared for by others. With passing age however, these needs change to a variety of other things with varying intensities. Abraham Maslow actually described five hierarchy of needs viz. physiological (food, water, sex etc.), safety (shelter, job security, absence of child abuse, health etc.), love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization (Maslow, 1970). The “active, intentional involvement in the process of personal growth” (Robitschek, 1999, p.197) is referred to as Personal growth initiative. This implies that people can grow either intentionally or unintentionally and aware or unawares (Robitschek, 1999).

The frustration of these needs hamper personal growth and may lead to negative affective states and poor psychological health, which in turn may impact on the initiative for personal growth. Thus, psychosocial characteristics of persons may impact on their PGI. For example, early childhood experience may influence the image a person has of himself or herself. Alfred Adler used the concept superiority striving to describe a person’s drive towards self-determination and mastery (Adler, 1970).

Factors like gender and age are important in the way society reacts to, and treats a person, and are therefore likely to shape and modulate PGI. Self-concept and need for actualisation change with passing age thus occasioning continuous adaptation geared towards meeting growth needs.

Personal growth initiative has been found to be beneficial to mental health (Thoen & Robitschek, 2013). Hence, its intentional pursuit will potentially result in positive or good mental health. Sharma and Rani (2013) identified the outstanding features of intentional growth to include Knowledge of and about the process of personal growth (Knowledge about the procedures to bring about personal growth, Knowledge about specific things to change General knowledge of self-improvement), Valuing the process of personal growth (Valuing process, outcomes of personal growth), and Intentional Behaviour. To them PGI is an acquired skill set for self-improvement across life domains.

Personal growth initiative is related to the construct of hope (Shorey, Little, Synder, Kluck & Robitschek, 2003). Hope has been defined by Snyder as, “the process of thinking about one's goals, along with the motivation to move toward (agency) and the ways to achieve (pathways) those goals” (Snyder, 1995, p. 245). And Robischeck conceptualized PGI as ‘‘intentional engagement in growth-enhancing cognitions and behaviours in all areas of life’’ (Robitschek, 1998, p. 184). Thus, PGI involves the gravitation or progress towards goal attainment, which then leads to positive self-worth. A correlation r = 0.84 (zero-order= .64) was found between Hope and PGI (Shorey et al., 2007). This implies that when people initiate personal growth vigorously, they also tend to also manifest hope. Both PGI and hope may enhance self-cognition and emotion thereby lowering the feeling of stress and psychological distress, and consequently improve overall wellness of the individual

Personal growth initiative was predicted by family processes, family organization and personal growth which are components of multidimensional family functioning (Whittaker & Robitschek, 2001). Apart from the contributory role of the aforementioned three multidimensional family functioning, Whittaker and Robitschek (2001) noted the higher contribution of family processes and personal growth to personal growth initiative. Personal growth and family processes have been found to engender personal growth initiative among women (Whittaker & Robitschek, 2001).

Robitschek (1998) noted that personal growth initiative as it relates to transition in midlife and found it to be stable over short period of time. The more interesting fact about personal growth initiative however, is not just that it is stable overtime but that it is similarly manifested among men and women in different cultures. PGI is of cultural significance to the European, American, and the Mexican American (Robitschek, 2003). In Nigeria, personal growth initiative has been related to mental health in University Undergraduates, the latter being a predictor of personal growth initiative (Ogunyemi & Mabekoje, 2007). Ogunyemi and Mabekoje (2007) also noted that risk-taking behaviour, self-efficacy, and personal growth were related to PGI in the students in their study.

In the same vein Robinschek and Cook (1999) observed that University students tend to explore their environments and identify easily with a particular vocation when they have a good level of personal growth initiative. Interestingly, PGI has also been found to predict different dimensions of mental wellbeing such as psychological, social, and emotional wellbeing among men and women students in College (Robitschek & Keyes, 2009). Ayub and Iqbal (2012) observed a negative relationship between personal growth initiative and psychological distress in Pakistani adolescents. In the study psychological distress was defined as depressive and anxiety symptoms measured with the 10 – item psychological distress scale (Kessler, 1996). Interestingly, PGI has also been to be positively associated with psychological wellbeing, and to enhance mental health among Pakistani adolescents (Ayub & Iqbal, 2012).

The problem

We may deduce from the foregoing that positive psychological wellbeing derived from PGI may manifest in positive mental health. It is however unclear what factors psychosocial factors influence Personal Growth initiative. This study therefore aims at answering the following questions on whether people will differ on PGI based on Age, Sex, and marital status. Studies like this are important in determining what variables contribute to the development of PGI and would by useful to Educators, Counsellors, and Psychotherapists.

It is hypothesized in this study that neither age, gender, nor marital status would significantly influence personal growth initiative of community dwellers in Ota, Ogun State.

METHODS

Participants

The participants were 149 (50 males and 99 females) persons who ranged between 18 and 65 years in age ( 30.54, SD = 12.03). Seventy-nine i.e. 53.02 % were married, and seventy, 46.98 % were single. The participants were recruited from public places in Ota by the simple random sampling procedure.

Measures

Personal Growth Initiative (PGI) was measured using the Personal growth initiative scale [PGIS] developed by Christine Robischek (Robitchek, 1998). The instrument, a 9-item Likert type questionnaire with responses ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = definitely disagree, captures both the cognitive and behavioural intention to change in its item composition. High scores on the instrument indicate high propensity for personal growth, and low scores indicate low personal growth initiative scale. The internal consistency of the PGIS ranges between 0.78 – 0.90. Robitschek (1998, 1999) found an 8 weeks test-retest reliability r= 0.74, and concurrent validity ranging between 0.24 – 0.56 with the Growth, assertiveness and internal locus of control scales. In the present study a Cronbach alpha of .84 and a Spearman-Brown split half reliability r = .843 was found for the PGIS. The questionnaire was translated into Yoruba and back translated into English with sufficient results.

Design/Statistic

The study was cross sectional, and a 3-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical technique for unequal sample size was employed in data analyses using the SPSS-XVII statistical package. The participants were grouped into three age groups (group 1: < = 23; group 2 = 24 – 32; group 3: 33 +). Participants aged 24 – 32 manifested a higher level of personal growth ( = 29.29) than those aged 23 years or less ( = 26.87) and those aged 33 and above ( = 27.40). There was a very small difference between the manifestation of personal growth between males and females with females manifesting slightly higher scores (0.4). Single participants manifested more personal growth initiative ( = 28.05) than married participants (=27.58).

RESULTS

Table 1 above is a comparison of the score of participants on the PGIS by age, gender, and marital status. Participants were grouped into three comparison groups (<= 23, 24-32, 33+ years, n = 47, SD = 10.74) for age, two for gender, and two for marital status. It can be seen that participants in the 24-32 year age group manifested more personal growth initiative (=29.29) than those aged 33+ (=27.43), and those aged <= 23.00 (=26.87 ) Females evinced higher PGI ( =28.05) than the male (27.54) participants, and Single had a mean 28.05 that was greater than that for the married participants (=27.58). These differences in mean were not statistically significant as shown below.

Table 2 is the summary of the result of the analysis of variance performed on the data. As can be seen, neither age, gender, nor marital status exerted any statistically significant influence on Personal Growth Initiative at ρ < .05. There also was no significant interaction effect between the variables. The effect sizes for both the main and interaction effects were notably very small.

DISCUSSION

The result of the study indicates that neither age, gender, nor marital status has significant effect on personal growth initiative. However, an interesting pattern is revealed by the group means; participants aged 24-32 years evinced greater PGI than people those 33 years or older , and those less than 23 years . What is suggested is that cultural expectations may influence the development of personal growth initiative. Culturally, people within ages 23-32 are expected to have completed a significant part of their education or vocational training, secure job and earn money, and then settle down in their own homes. Less responsibility is expected of people aged 23 years or less; and people aged 33 years and above may have already achieved need satisfaction in more areas of life and are therefore less motivated than the people aged 23 to 32 years. In the same vein, single, unmarried participants showed slightly higher mean score than the married.

ts the ubiquitous nature of PGI in keeping with the observation of Rogers that all humans are rational and strive to achieve their potential ).

IMPLICATION

The result of this study suggests that culture and societal expectations play some fundamental role in the development of personal growth initiative. People are rational and aspire for growth (Rogers, 2004) in line with social expectations. What is implied is that PGI and achievement motivation will be low in societies lacking some minimal standards of expectations from its members; this situation may translate to a cycle of dependency culture and poverty and the resulting frustration may lead to some form of affective disturbances, drug abuse, violence and social instability within such societies.

CONCLUSION

Personal growth initiative is common to humans and may not be influenced by age, gender, or marital status. However, cultural expectations are important in people taking the initiative to grow themselves. Since PGI may lead to productive activities, a link between PGI of citizens and overall wellbeing and stability of society may be inferred. Being a preliminary study, the interpretations of the results of this study is to be taken with caution..

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