Origins: List of Evidences

Website: Studying the Word of God

Authors: Brian K. McPherson and Scott McPherson

Web Address (URL): biblestudying.net

Origins: List of Evidences

Introduction to the Table

In the center column is a list of evidences grouped into categories in the following order: 1) The Origin of the Universe, 2) The Laws, Parameters, Ratios, and Processes of the Universe, 3) Time for Evolution 1 – Age of the Universe: The Evidence from Astrophysics, 4) Mechanisms for the Formation of the Universe, 5) Time for Evolution 2 – Age of the Earth: The Historical Record and Other Evidences from Humankind, 6) Time for Evolution 3 – Age of the Earth: The Evidence from Geology, 7) Time for Evolution 4 – Biological Evidence, 8) The Evidence Concerning the Evolutionary Origin of Life, 9) The Mechanisms of Biological Evolution, and 10) The Evidence Concerning the Biological Evolution of Species.

Italicized, non-underlined phrases or sentences designate the start of one of these seven categories. Bold, underlined phrases, followed by a descriptive paragraph indicate individual pieces of evidence that are not sub-components of a larger, family of evidence. For example, “Redshift / The Distant Travel of Starlight.” In contrast, underlined phrases that are NOT bolded but are followed by a descriptive paragraph indicate pieces of pieces of evidence that are subcomponents of a larger family of evidence. For example, “Carbon-14” is a sub-point under the family “Absolute Dating.” In other words, all underlined phrases are pieces of evidence and whether or not individual pieces of evidences are bolded depends on whether or not they are being placed under a larger super-category or family of evidence.

The narrow column to the left of the center column is marked “CRE” for “Creation Theory.” And the narrow column to the right of the center column is marked “EVO” for “Evolution Theory.” These columns to the left and right of the center column are intended to keep a running tab for how each piece of evidence favors or disfavors either theory.

Throughout the chart “Y,” “N,” or “0” will be placed in these columns on the left and right. “Y” = “Yes,” designating that a particular piece of evidence favors, helps, supports, affirms, or proves a theory. “N” = “No,” designating that a particular piece of evidence disfavors, hurts, undermines, negates, or disproves a theory. The “0” indicates that a particular piece of evidence favors neither theory over the other, neither helping nor hurting either theory. Some lines describing larger families have general implications for the theories apart from the specific sub-points listed beneath them. Other lines describing larger families of evidence are left blank in either column because the only indications from the evidence stem from their sub-points, listed below them. When a blank space appears next to a piece of evidence, (such as “Absolute Dating”) the designations, “Y,” “N,” or “0” will be placed individually next to each sub-point in that family of evidence.

From time to time, there will also be explanatory “NOTES” in the central column to provide context or references for the evidences that follow.

Introductory Notes

NOTE 1: Maximum Ages, Not Minimum Ages – The pieces of evidence listed below establish maximum limits on the age of the earth, not minimum limits. In other words, the limits state that the earth cannot be older than a certain age because of certain physical processes and the rates of those processes. Furthermore, this is uniquely applicable to uniformitarianism, because only uniformitarianism states as its foundational principle that these rates cannot change. Consequently, within uniformitarianism, it is not possible to slow down the rates in order to allow for more time. However, in catastrophism, the earth could be much lower than these maximum limits because catastrophism’s central ideology is that the present condition of the earth occurred rapidly due to major geologic events, during which many processes that otherwise occur slowly, are rapidly sped up. In other words, the limitations are strictly the result of uniform rates in processes. Consequently, these limits do not state that the earth has to be at least the age identified in the limit, only that it can be no older than that age if the processes occur uniformly and at uniform rates.

In addition, this is the only way to reconcile different age limits. If, for example, one maximum limit dictates that the earth is no older than 100 million years, and another limit dictates that the earth is no older than 10 million years, both limits cannot represent the actual age of the earth. Moreover, the age at the higher limit violates the lower limit. But, if the earth is dated to the younger date and is, for illustration, assigned an age of 9 million years, then it conforms to both limits, being less than the maximum of 100 million years set by the higher limit and less than the maximum of 10 million years set by the lower limit. Consequently, it is the lowest of the maximum age limits that define the true age limit. Higher age limits simply rule out hundreds of millions or billions of years needed for evolution due to the fact that any age above any maximum age limit violates that limit. Conversely, if an age is under all the maximum age limits, it is acceptable, even if it is far below the lowest limit. Such an age is acceptable no matter how low it is, simply because it does not exceed any of the maximum limits for age.

The only criterion that would rule out a low age is if the processes had to occur at uniform rate. But the principle of uniform rates is itself disproved by the variety of maximum limits set by various processes, which in turn rule out the time needed by other processes to produce essential features of the earth at their current rates. (Footnote: 2)

NOTE 2: Simple Observation and Deduction is Inherently More Reliable – Throughout the examination of dating methods, it was repeatedly noted that relative dating is regarded as “inherently more precise” and reliable than absolute dating because relative dating relies solely on direct observation and simple, straightforward, logical deductions as opposed to absolute dating, which relies on computations that are so highly complicated and assumption-laden that it requires expensive, advanced computers to perform the calculations.

“Dating, General considerations, Determination of sequence – It is also important to note that relative ages are inherently more precise, since two or more units deposited minutes or years apart would have identical absolute ages but precisely defined relative ages. While absolute ages require expensive, complex analytical equipment, relative ages can be deduced from simple visual observations…The principles for relative age dating described above require no special equipment and can be applied by anyone on a local or regional scale. They are based on visual observations and simple logical deductions and rely on a correlation and integration of data that occurs in fragmentary form at many outcrop locations…Absolute dating, Principles of isotopic dating – Because of the expensive equipment necessary and the combination of geologic, chemical, and laboratory skills required, geochronology is usually carried out by teams of experts.” – Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition

By such standards any evidentiary process that is based on direct observation and simple, straightforward, logical deductions is likewise going to be more precise and reliable than absolute dating. Once again, this constitutes an obstacle that is particularly problematic for the evolutionary principle of uniformitarianism, because uniformitarianism is not going to be able to avoid the logical deductions, which contradict evolution theory, simply by altering the rates at which processes occur. Consequently, these processes require either the abandonment of evolutionary theory itself, because there is not enough time, or the abandonment of uniformitarianism, which is the very principle that provides the amount of time needed for evolution in the first place.

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TABLE OF EVIDENCES / /

CRE / /
Evidence / /
EVO
/ /
The Origin of the Universe
Did the universe have a beginning? There are only 2 answers to this question. Either, the universe had no beginning but is itself eternal and has always existed. Or, the universe had a beginning and is not itself eternal. / /

Y / /
The Second Law Of Thermodynamics: The second law of thermodynamics clearly disproves the notion of an eternal universe or the notion that matter and energy are eternal. The second law of thermodynamics describes the phenomenon of entropy. Entropy is the loss of available energy as disorder increases in a system.
"Food Web, III ENERGY FLOW - The process whereby energy loses its capacity to do work is called entropy." - "Food Web," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
The second law of thermodynamics states that, in a closed (or isolated) system, entropy always increases.
"Hawking, Stephen William - For instance, the second law of thermodynamics states that entropy, or disorder, must increase with time." - "Hawking, Stephen William," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
"Entropy - The idea of entropy is the basis of the second law of thermodynamics. According to this law, the direction of spontaneous change in isolated systems is toward maximum disorder...Taken together, all processes occurring now will result in a universe of greater disorder. Because the entropy of the universe is always increasing, a state of greater entropy must be one that occurs later in time. For this reason, entropy has been called 'time's arrow.'" - Worldbook, Contributor: Melvyn C. Usselman, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Chemistry, University of Western Ontario.
"Thermodynamics, IV SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - The second law of thermodynamics gives a precise definition of a property called entropy. Entropy can be thought of as a measure of how close a system is to equilibrium; it can also be thought of as a measure of the disorder in the system. The law states that the entropy-that is, the disorder-of an isolated system can never decrease. Thus, when an isolated system achieves a configuration of maximum entropy, it can no longer undergo change: It has reached equilibrium. Nature, then, seems to "prefer" disorder or chaos." - "Thermodynamics," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
When a system reaches this state of maximum entropy, it is said to have reached equilibrium and the temperature becomes uniform. This state is called heat death. And at this time no work or change can occur.
"Heat, Heat/Learning about heat, Thermodynamics - According to the second law, all spontaneous (natural) events act to increase the entropy within a system. Until a system reaches its maximum entropy, it can do useful work. But as a system does work, its entropy increases until the system can no longer perform work." - Worldbook, Contributor: Ared Cezairliyan, Ph.D., Former Research Physicist, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
"Physics, IV NEWTON AND MECHANICS, E Thermodynamics, 3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics - From the second law, it follows that in an isolated system (one that has no interactions with the surroundings) internal portions at different temperatures will always adjust to a single uniform temperature and thus produce equilibrium...The entropy of an isolated system, and of the universe as a whole, can only increase, and when equilibrium is eventually reached, no more internal change of any form is possible. Applied to the universe as a whole, this principle suggests that eventually all temperature in space becomes uniform, resulting in the so-called heat death of the universe." - "Physics," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
"Physics, The scope of physics, The study of heat, thermodynamics, and statistical mechanics, Second law - Another formulation of the second law is that the entropy of an isolated system never decreases with time...Statistical mechanics - From a microscopic point of view the laws of thermodynamics imply that, whereas the total quantity of energy of any isolated system is constant, what might be called the quality of this energy is degraded as the system moves inexorably, through the operation of the laws of chance, to states of increasing disorder until it finally reaches the state of maximum disorder (maximum entropy), in which all parts of the system are at the same temperature, and none of the state's energy may be usefully employed. When applied to the universe as a whole, considered as an isolated system, this ultimate chaotic condition has been called the 'heat death.'" - Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
In modern scientific terms, the universe is a closed system. All that exists is a closed system. And consequently, given enough time, a state of maximum entropy will occur in which there is no available energy in the universe. If the universe were eternal, this state of maximum entropy, in which there was no available energy, no work being done, and no change occurring, would have been reached a long time ago. Since the universe still has available energy and work and change still take place, it cannot be eternally old. To suggest or believe that the universe, or that matter and energy, are eternally old is to contradict the known scientific laws of thermodynamics. And that is simply not an option for a rational or an empirical atheist.
This leaves only the option that the universe is not itself eternal but had a beginning.
Conclusions from the Second Law of Thermodynamics do not point in favor or against either the creationist or the evolutionist model, although the implied need for a cause for the universe will be an important factor in the considerations that follow. / /
N

Y / /
First Law of Thermodynamics: The first law of thermodynamics states that, as a matter of physical and natural law, energy and matter cannot be either created or destroyed.
"Thermodynamics, Classical thermodynamics, The first law of thermodynamics - The first law of thermodynamics is often called the law of the conservation of energy (actually mass-energy) because it says, in effect, that, when a system undergoes a process, the sum of all the energy transferred across the system boundary-either as heat or as work-is equal to the net change in the energy of the system." - Encyclopaedia Britannica 2004 Deluxe Edition
"Thermodynamics, III FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS - The first law, then, is a law of energy conservation. It states that, because energy cannot be created or destroyed-setting aside the later ramifications of the equivalence of mass and energy (see Nuclear Energy)-the amount of heat transferred into a system plus the amount of work done on the system must result in a corresponding increase of internal energy in the system." - "Thermodynamics," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 99. © 1993-1998 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
"Heat, Heat/Learning about heat, Thermodynamics - The first law of thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. It states that energy is never created or destroyed." - Worldbook, Contributor: Ared Cezairliyan, Ph.D., Former Research Physicist, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
Both the evolution Big Bang model and creation model assert that the universe was not eternal but had a beginning. Therefore, both theories contradict the First Law of Thermodynamics concerning the unique event that is the beginning of the universe. Evolutionists regard the beginning of the universe as a miraculous, momentary suspension of natural and physical laws.
" [The big bang] represents the instantaneous suspension of physical laws, the sudden abrupt flash of lawlessness that allowed something to come out of nothing. It represents a true miracle." - The Edge of Infinity, Paul Davies, physicist and evolutionist (Cited on "Astronomy and the Bible," Mike Riddle, Copyright Northwester Creation Network, nwcreation.net)
"Quantum theory…holds that a vacuum…is subject to quantum uncertainties. This means that things can materialize out of the vacuum, although they tend to vanish back into it quickly….Theoretically, anything-a dog, a house, a planet-can pop into a existence by means of this quantum quirk, which physicist call a vacuum fluctuation. Probability, however, dictates that pairs of subatomic particles…are by far the most likely creations and that they will last extremely briefly….The spontaneous, persistent creation of something even as large as a molecule is profoundly unlikely. Nevertheless, in 1973, an assistant professor at Columbia University named Edward Tryon suggested that the entire universe might have come into existence this way….The whole universe may be, to use [MIT physicist Alan] Guth's phrase, 'a free lunch.'" - Brad Lemley, "Guth's Grand Guess," Discover (April 2002), p. 100 (Cited in The Case for a Creator, by Lee Strobel, Copyright 2004 by Lee Strobel, Zondervan, p. 100)
Given that the origin of the universe constitutes a momentary suspension of natural and physical laws, the next question is what caused the universe and this suspension of natural and physical laws? The first answer to this question that is often advanced by the evolutionary model is that there is no preceding cause. There was nothing before the universe. The universe came into being out of nothing, not even space or time.
"17.6 The Origin of the Universe - If the universe is expanding, then it must have once been much smaller. If you could run the life of the universe in reverse, like a film, you would see the universe contracting until it disappeared in a flash of light, leaving nothing. In the realm of the universe, nothing really meansnothing. Not only matter and energy would disappear, but also space and time. However, physicists theorize that from this state of nothingness the universe began in a gigantic explosion about 16.5 billion years ago. This theory of the origin of the universe is called the Big Bang theory." - HBJ General Science, 1989, p. 362 (Cited on "Seminar Part 1: The Age of the Earth," Dr. Kent E. Hovind, Creation Science Evangelism, Pensacola, FL, Windows Media Video, 27 minutes, 15 seconds)