Table of Contents
Biology 121 Learning Outcomes 1 – 6
Cells and Histology 7 – 19
Integumentary System 20 – 21
Osteology 22 – 29
Bone Identification List 30 – 38
Nervous System 39 – 54
Muscular System 55 – 67
Biology 122 Learning Outcomes 65 – 74
Reproductive and Embryology 74 – 94
Urinary System 95 – 111
Digestive System 112 – 129
Cardiovascular System 130 – 154
Lymphatic System 155 – 157
Respiratory System 158 – 160
Endocrine System 161 – 168
Cadaver Dissection 169 – 184
ISBN: 2-1030-1161-9
Learning Outcomes
Anatomy and Physiology 121
1. List the organelles in a typical animal cell and describe the function of each.
2. Describe the cellular organelles contribution to homeostasis.
3. Describe in detail the processes involved in cellular metabolism.
4. List typical tissue types found in the human body and describe the structure and function of each.
5. List the components of the integumentary system and define the function of each.
6. Identify the bones and bone markings of the human skeletal system.
7. Describe the physiological processes of the skeletal system.
8. List the major types of articulations and describe each in detail.
9. Identify the major diarthrotic joints and describe each in detail.
10. Identify the major skeletal muscles found in the body.
11. Describe the characteristics of smooth and cardiac muscle.
12. Describe the physiological processes of the muscular system.
13. List the major components of the male and the female reproductive system.
14. Describe the physiological processes involved in each system.
15. Describe in detail spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Anatomy and Physiology 121
Student Objectives
Chapter 1: Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology
1. Explain the term homeostasis and how it applies to physiology of the body.
2. Correctly identify the organelles and the structure and function of a typical mammalian cell.
3. Explain the function of the cell in relation to homeostasis of the body.
4. Explain the idea of increasing level of complexity.
5. Identify and describe the function of each system contained in the human body.
6. Describe why the study of anatomy and physiology is important to the health occupations.
Chapter 3: Cell Biology
1. Define the terms cell, cytology, metabolism, and organelle.
2. Describe, using examples from the human body, how cells differ in regard to structure, function, and location.
3. Describe basic chemical reactions that occur at the cellular level.
4. Describe the movement of substances by osmosis, diffusion, active transport, obligatory transport, and endocytosis.
5. Describe the structure of the cell membrane and how transport of a substance is affected.
6. Define the structure and function of the major organelles in a cell.
7. Describe the importance of the nucleus in cell processes.
8. List the steps in the process of mitosis.
9. Describe how cell function affects the entire body.
10. Describe how carcinogenic cells develop.
Chapter 4: Cellular Metabolism
1. Differentiate between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
2. Describe the steps involved in cellular respiration (glycolysis, Krebs cycle, electron transport).
3. Define the terms AMP, ADP, ATP.
4. Define oxidative phosphorylation in relation to cell metabolism.
5. Describe the function of enzymes and coenzymes.
6. Outline the process of protein synthesis.
7. Describe how the molecules DNA and RNA affect types of proteins manufactured in a cell.
Chapter 5: Histology
1. Define the term tissue and the importance of the study of tissues.
2. Explain the relationship between cells, tissues and how they relate to the body homeostasis.
3. Identify and classify the four types of tissues found in the body.
4. Describe the embryological development of tissue types.
5. Identify the principle epithelial tissues in the body.
6. Describe the function and structure of epithelial tissues.
7. Identify the principle connective tissues in the body.
8. Describe the function and structure of connective tissues.
9. Identify the three muscle types in the human body.
10. Describe the characteristics of each muscle type.
11. Describe the basic functions of nerve tissue.
12. Identify sensory and motor neurons.
13. Define gland and identify basic types found in the body.
Chapter 6: Integumentary System
1. Describe the components of the integumentary system.
2. Describe the function of the integumentary system in the maintenance of homeostasis.
3. Differentiate between epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous.
4. Identify structures and glands found in the integument.
5. Describe why the integumentary system fits the classification of a true system.
6. Describe the processes of cell replacement and injury repair in the skin.
7. Describe the function of the melanocytes.
8. Describe factors the can lead to skin cancer.
Chapter 7: Skeletal System
1. Discuss the function of the skeletal system.
2. Discuss the contribution of the skeletal system to homeostasis.
3. Describe the process of endochondral ossification.
4. Describe the process of intramembranous ossification.
5. Describe the embryological growth and development of bone tissue.
6. Identify and classify each bone in the skeletal system.
7. Identify the important bone markings of the skeletal system.
8. Describe the articulations of each bone.
9. Describe the process of bone repair.
10. Describe the differences between the male and female skeletal system.
Chapter 8: Articulations
1. Define the term arthrology.
2. Describe and classify the types of joints found in the body.
3. Define the term synarthroses.
4. List the types of synarthrotic joints in the body.
5. Define amphiarthroses.
6. List the types of amphiarthrotic joints in the body.
7. Define diarthroses.
8. List the types of diarthrotic joints in the body.
9. Describe the types of joint movements associated with diarthrotic joints.
10. Identify ligaments and bones associate with the elbow, hip, knee, and shoulder joints.
11. Define the following terms and use in correct context: bursa, ligament, synovial membrane, joint capsule, and articular cartilage.
Chapter 9: Muscular System
1. Describe the embryological development of the muscular system.
2. Identify the component parts of a muscle.
3. Identify the organelles found in a muscle cell.
4. List in correct sequence the events contained in skeletal muscle contraction.
5. Describe the contraction of cardiac muscle.
6. Describe the contraction of multi and single unit smooth muscle.
7. Describe skeletal muscle contraction recordings of a myogram.
8. Describe the skeletal muscle groups found in the body.
9. Locate the major muscles on the cadaver and the cat.
10. Describe the action and possible movements of each muscle.
11. Describe the muscular systems contribution to homeostasis.
The Nervous System
1. Describe the general functions of the nervous system.
2. Explain the difference between sensory and motor neurons.
3. List types of cells associated with the nervous system.
4. Define cell membrane potential and how an electrical current is produced.
5. Describe the synapse and impulse conduction through the synaptic junction.
6. Describe impulse processing.
7. Define: neuronal pools, facilitation, convergence, divergence.
8. Describe how neurons are classified according to structure and function.
9. Describe the spinal cord and associated tissues and cells.
10. List the functions of the spinal cord.
11. Describe the general aspects of the brain.
12. Describe the function of each major region of the brain.
13. List the cranial nerves.
14. List the spinal nerves.
15. Describe the autonomic nervous system.
16. Describe the parasympathetic and sympathetic division of the autonomic system.
17. Describe the pathways of nerves and the location of major nerves in the cadaver and cat.
18. Describe the location of major nerve plexus.
19. Define the contribution of the nervous system to homeostasis.
CELL ORGANELLES
ORGANELLE FUNCTION
CELL MEMBRANE Selective Entry – transport processes.
CHROMATIN DNA/RNA – Information for Protein Synthesis.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Transport materials lipid synthesis attached
ribosomes.
GOLGI (stacked E.R.) Modification of protein for transport.
VESICLES Storage of various substances.
MITOCHONDRIA Release of energy in form of A.T.P. oxidative
respiration.
RIBOSOMES Protein synthesis.
CENTRIOLES Distribution of chromosomes to new cells.
CILIA/FLAGELLA Propel fluid over surface of cell and sperm
motility.
MICROVILLI “Brush Border” increase absorptive area of a cell
MOVEMENTS ACROSS CELL MEMBRANE
PROCESS SATURATION EXHIBITED DESCRIPTION
DIFFUSION No Saturation Molecules or ions move from
Higher to lower concentration.
OSMOSIS No Saturation Water molecules diffusing
through cell membrane.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT Saturation Transport of molecules from a
Lower to a higher concentration.
ENDOCYTOSIS Saturation Membrane “captures” a substance
and moves it into a cell.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION Saturation Carrier molecule transports
substance from higher to lower
concentration.
METABOLIC PROCESSES
I. ANABOLIC VS CATABOLIC
A. AN ANABOLIC REACTION BUILDS LARGER, MORE COMPLEX MOLECULES FROM SMALLER MOLECULES
B. CATABOLIC REACTIONS BREAKDOWN LARGE MOLECULES INTO SMALLER SIMPLER MOLECULES
II. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS VS HYDROLYSIS
A. DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS IS THE REMOVAL OF A WATER MOLECULE TO BUILD COMPLEX MOLECULES (ANABOLIC)
EX. (C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6 > C12 H22 O11)
B. HYDROLYSIS IS THE ADDITION OF A WATER MOLECULE TO BREAK A COMPLEX MOLECULE INTO SMALLER MONOMERS
EX. (C12 H22 O11 + H2O > C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6)
III. ENZYME ACTIVITY
A. ENZYMES CONTROL BOTH ANABOLIC AND CATABOLIC PROCESSES
B. ENZYMES ARE THOUGHT TO ACCOMPLISH THEIR TASK BY THE LACK AND KEY THEORY
C. ENZYMES ARE GLOBULAR LPROTEINS
D. PROMOTE SPECIFIC REACTIONS
E. THERE IS A SPECIFIC ENZYME FOR EACH SUBSTRATE
F. THE SUFFIX "ASE" FOLLOWS THE NAME OF AN ENZYME
SUSTRATE ENZYME
LIPID LIPASE
PROTEIN PROTEASE
SUCROSE SUCRASE
MALTOSE MALTASE
LACTOSE LACTASE
H2O2 CATALASE
IV. REDUCTION/OXIDATION REACTIONS
A. A MOLECULE THAT ACCEPTS AN ELECTRON OR HYDROGEN IS REDUCED
B. A MOLECULE THAT GIVES UP AN ELECTRON OR HYDROGEN IS OXIDIZED
V. CARBOHYDRATE METABOLIC PATHWAYS
A. GLYCOLYSIS IS THE CONVERSION OF A 6 CARBON GLUCOSE MOLECULE INTO TWO 3 CARBON PYRUVIC ACID MOLECULES
B. THE CITRIC ACID CYCLE IS A COMPLEX SET OF REACTIONS THAT MOLECULES ARE DECOMPOSED, ATP RELEASED, AND HYDROGEN AND CO2 RELEASED
C. HYDROGEN ATOMS ARE CONVERTED INTO HYDROGEN IONS WHICH COMBINE WITH O2 TO FORM WATER
D. ELECTRONS FROM THE HYDROGEN ENTER THE ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM
E. ENERGY IS RELEASED FROM THE SYSTEM THAT IS USED TO BUILD MOLECULES OF ATP
F. EACH GLUCOSE MOLECULE CAN PRODUCE 38 ATP MOLECULES
VI. STAGES OF RESPIRATION
A. STAGE 1 DIGESTION OF FOOD
B. STAGE 2 SMALLER MOLECULES CONVERTED TO ACETYL CoA
C. STAGE 3 KREB CYCLE AND E.T.S.
VII. ATP SYNTHESIS CLOSER EXAMINATION
A. HYDROGEN CARRIERS NAD NICOTINAMIDE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE
1. WHEN NAD ACCEPT 2 H ATOMS IT IS REDUCED AND BECOMES NADH + H
B. FAD IS ANOTHER ELECTRON CARRIER FLAVINE ADENINE DINUCLEOTIDE
C. IN THEIR REDUCED STATES NADH AND FADH2 HOLD MOST OF THE ENERGY IN THE ORIGINAL MOLECULE OF GLUCOSE
D. WHEN HYDROGEN IS RELEASED NAD AND FAD ARE OXIDIZED
E. THE ELECTRONS ARE PASSED TO ELECTRON CARRIERS
F. MOLECULES THAT ACT AS CARRIERS COMPRISE THE E.T.S.
1. AS ELECTRONS ARE PASSED EACH CARRIER IS ALTERNATELY REDUCED AND OXIDIZED
2. SOME CARRIERS ARE CYTOCHROMES IN THE INNER MEMBRANE OF THE MITOCHONDRIA
3. THE LAST CYTOCHROME GIVES UP e AND CAUSES TWO HYDROGEN IONS TO COMBINE WITH OXYGEN
2e + 2H + 1/2 O2 > H2O
G. THE OXIDATION OF 10 PAIR OF H ATOMS YIELDS 38 ATP
H. THE PROCESS IS CALLED OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION
1. OXIDATION OF GLUCOSE
2. PHOSPHORYLATION OF ADP TO ATP
VIII. OTHER PATHWAYS
A. LIPIDS: Fatty Acids: Polymer of acetyl CoA release energy by oxidation.
Produces acid by products.
Glycerol: Similar in metabolism to glucose.
B. PROTEINS: Deaminated
↙ ↘
NH2 Deaminated Portion
↙ ↘
Urea acetel CoA
HISTOLOGY
I. EPITHELIAL TISSUES
A. EPITHELIAL TISSUE COVERS ALL FREE BODY SURFACES
B. MAJOR TISSUE OF GLANDS
C. ANCHORED TO CONNECTIVE TISSUE BY BASEMENT MEMBRANE
D. LACKS BLOOD VESSELS
E. REPLACED CONTINUOUSLY (STOMACH, INTESTINE, SKIN)
F. FUNCTIONS: PROTECTION, SECRETION, ABSORPTION, EXCRETION, SENSORY RECEPTION
II. TYPES OF EPITHELIAL TISSUES
** A. SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
1. SINGLE THIN LAYER OF FLATTENED CELLS
2. SUBSTANCES PASS THROUGH EASILY
3. FUNCTION IN LUNG AS CO2, O2 EXCHANGE
4. LINES BLOOD VESSELS
5. LINES LYMPH VESSELS
6. LINES VARIOUS MEMBRANES IN THORAX/ABDOMEN
** B. SIMPLE CUBOIDAL
1. SINGLE LAYER OF CUBE SHAPED CELLS
2. CARRIES ON SECRETION AND ABSORPTION IN KIDNEYS AND GLANDS
** C. SIMPLE COLUMNAR TISSUES
1. ELONGATED CELLS
2. NUCLEI ARE LOCATED NEAR BASEMENT MEMBRANE
3. LINES THE UTERUS, GI TRACT
4. FUNCTIONS: SECRETION, ABSORPTION, PROTECTION
5. ABSORBING CELLS OFTEN CONTAIN MICRO VILLI
6. TISSUE USUALLY CONTAINS GOBLET CELLS THAT CONTAIN MUCUS
D. PSEUDOSTRATIFIED COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM
1. APPEARS STRATIFIED BECAUSE OF NUCLEI PLACEMENT
2. CELLS POSSESS CILIA TO MOVE MUCUS OR CELLS OVER THE SURFACE
3. LINES TUBES OF RESPIRATORY AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
E. STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
1. COMPOSED OF MANY CELL LAYERS
2. PROTECTS UNDERLYING CELLS
3. FOUND IN SKIN, MOUTH, THROAT, VAGINA, AND ANAL CANAL
F. TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
1. TISSUE CAN UNDERGO DISTENSION
2. OCCURS IN WALLS OF ORGANS IN THE URINARY TRACT
3. PREVENTS CONTENTS OF URINARY FROM DIFFUSING OUTWARD
G. GLANDULAR EPITHELIUM
1. SPECIALIZED TO SECRETE SUBSTANCES
2. ONE OR MORE CELLS CONSTITUTE A GLAND
a) EXOCRINE GLANDS: SECRETE INTO DUCTS
b) ENDOCRINE GLANDS: SECRETE INTO TISSUE FLUID OR BLOOD
3. GLANDS CLASSIFIED IN THREE GROUPS ACCORDING TO CONTENT OF SECRETIONS
a) MEROCRINE: WATERY FLUID, NO CYTOPLASM. MOST SECRETORY CELLS THESE SERIOUS CONTAIN HIGH % ENZYMES. MUCUS CELLS SECRETE MUCUS
(EX. SALIVARY, PANCREATIC, SOME SWEAT)
b) APOCRINE GLANDS: LOSE PORTION OF CELLS DURING SECRETION (EX. MAMMARY GLANDS, CERTAIN SWEAT GLANDS)
c) HOLOCRINE GLANDS: RELEASE CELLS FILLED WITH SECRETORY PRODUCT (EX. SEBACEOUS GLAND OF THE SKIN)
4. GLANDS ARE ALSO CLASSIFIED BY CELL ARRANGEMENT
a) TUBULAR CONSIST OF SIMPLE EPITHELIAL
b) ALVEOLAR ARE SACK LIKE DILATIONS CONNECTED TO SURFACE BY DUCTS
III. CONNECTIVE TISSUE
A. GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
1. CONNECTS
2. SUPPORTS
3. PROTECTS
4. PROVIDES FRAMEWORK
5. FILLS SPACES
6. STORES FAT
7. PRODUCES BLOOD CELLS