Women Police’s Employment Motivation and
Career Aspirations in Dubai and Taipei
Doris C. Chu
Department of Criminology
National Chung Cheng University
168 University Rd.
Ming Hsiung, Chia Yi
Phone: 886-5-2720411 ext. 36325
Email:
Abstract
During the past several decades, research on female officers has proliferated. Nevertheless, virtually no studies examinepolicewomen’s motivations to join law enforcement and their career aspirations in different metropolitan cities in the global context. Analyzing data gathered from 372 female officers (278 from Dubai and 94 from Taipei), this study explores female officers’ motivations to join police forces in Dubai and Taipei.It also compares female officers’ job- related satisfaction (relationshipswith colleagues and career aspirations)in Dubai and Taipei. While helping others was the top one reason for Dubai officers to join law enforcement, the majority (more than three quarters) of the female officers in Taipei chose to become police officers because of job security. The findings indicated that female officers in Dubai significantly differed from their colleagues in Taipei in several attitudinal dimensions:they showed a higher level of confidence in their work, and they also displayed a higher level of satisfaction with their coworkersand careers. With regard to satisfaction with supervisors and work, there was no significant difference between female officers in both cities. Policy implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Keywords: female officers; Dubai police; women police in Dubai; female officers in Taiwan; motivation to join law enforcement; job satisfaction; career advancement; Taiwan police; gender role; the United Arab Emirates
Introduction
Previous research has shown that women, generally speaking, have lower career aspirations than those of men (Leung et al., 1994). And yet, evidence also indicates that, over the past several decades, the dimensions of women’s career goalshave expanded (Gerstein, Lichtman, &Barokas, 1988; PhillipsImhoff, 1997). More and more women are choosing careersin fields, such as policing, military, or engineering that were previously dominated by males. As the levels of a state’s economic development and modernization increase, its people focus less on their physical and economic security and begin to embrace equality and justice, particularly gender equality, throughout their society (Steel &Kabashima, 2008). To comply with their own newly devised gender equality policies, governments of various countries around the world are now facing challenges and pressure to recruit more women into law enforcement. In the past three decades, a considerable literature that examines different aspects of the work of female police officers has emerged. Suchstudies include the status of women in policing (e.g., Martin, 1980; 1990; Burlingame &Baro, 2005), relationships with peers (Rabe-Hemp, 2008), attitudes and behaviors (e.g., Worden, 1993; Kakar, 2002; DeJong, 2004; Chu & Sun, 2006; Novak, Brown, & Frank, 2011), gender integration (Brown, 1997; Haarr, 1997; Strobl, 2008; Strobl& Sung, 2009; Natarajan, 2008; Chu, 2013), gender equality in policing (e.g., Prenzler, Fleming, & King, 2010), the motivations that underlie women’schoice of a policing career (Lord & Friday, 2003; Raganella, White, 2004; SekleckiPaynich, 2007; White, Cooper, Saunders, & Raganella, 2010), gender-related problems in policing (e.g., de Guzman & Frank, 2004), burnout and stress (Greene & del Carmen, 2002; He, Zhao, &Archbold, 2002; Backteman-Erlanson, Padyab, &Brulin, 2013), sex harassment in the workplace (SomvadeeMorash, 2008), career aspirations (Archbold, Hassell, &Stichman, 2010), and women’s roles in policing (e.g., Garcia, 2003; Martin, 2006; Rabe-Hemp, 2009; Chan, Doran, &Marel, 2010).It is noticeable that most of thesestudies have been conducted in one or the otherof such western countries as the USA, the UK, Canada, or Australia. Only a few studies on female police officers have been conducted in the non-western countries (e.g.,de Guzman & Frank, 2004; Strobl, 2008; Kim & Merlo, 2010; Chu, 2013), or byfollowing a cross-national comparative perspective (e.g., Natarajan, 1994; Chu & Sun, 2006). Strobl and Sung (2009) contend that looking at the non-western world through the lens of western assumptions may not capture the essence of policewomen’s perceptions in different cultural and social settings.
Studies comparing women police’s career aspirations and their motivation to join law enforcement between metropolitan cities in the global context do not seem to exist. In light of the increased recruitment of women in non-western countries-e.g., in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, it is important to expandour understanding of the perceptions of women police in a cross-national context. Such an effort provides lens through which we can better understand women police’s views on their career aspirations in different cultural settings. This sort of research can expand the existing knowledge base on females in policing and inform generalization that come from related theoretical perspectives. As the need for gender equality continues to grow, law enforcement administrators are increasingly concerned with how to attract more women into a traditionally male-dominated profession. Thus, it is important to understand what determinants affect policewomen job satisfaction, for these can enhance women’s retention rates in police work.
To fill in the gaps mentioned above, this study aimed to compare female police officers’ views on their career aspirations between Dubai and Taipei.Dubai and Taipeiwere chosen as the research sites of the present comparative study. Several reasons support the adoption of this choice. First, both Dubaiand Taipei are well-known internationalized cities that feature transportation systems that connect conveniently to all parts of the globe, and also accelerated urban development and infrastructure. As of October 2013, two of the world’s three highest buildings-BurjKhalifa Tower(Dubai)and 101 (Taipei)-are located in these two metropolitan cities. Second, both Dubai and Taipei are popular tourist destinations(Pacione, 2005), and local residents are exposed to diverse cultures and western influences. Third, although the religious cultures of the Emirati and Taiwanese peoplediffer markedly, women in both UAE and Taiwan still embrace, to a varying degree, traditional role orientation.
This sort of comparative study is important since it extends our understanding of the dynamics of how women police perceive career aspirations in very different regions, themselves characterized byintense modernization and social change. Understanding the reasons underlying females’ choice of working in policing and their career aspirations in such different cultural settings can lead to better recruitment strategies and policy implications, and also aid the retaining of more women in policing.
This paper begins with an overview of the historical developments of women police in the UAE and Taiwan and continues with a presentation of literature on an examination of women police’s motivations to enter law enforcement and job-related satisfaction. The methodology section, which follows, explains four dimensions of attitudes measured in the bivariate and multivariate regression analyses. Finally, findings of statistical analysis are discussed.
Women in Policing in Dubai
Beliefs in gender roles in the Middle East have been traditional and deeply rooted in Islamic culture (Schvaneveldt, Kerpelman, &Schvaneveldt, 2005). Women in Islamic societiesare encouraged to value traditional gender role attitudes (Schvaneveldt et al., 2005). However, with the recent and rapid economic developments and modernizationin the UAE, the government has made strides in minimizing gender gaps. Although still falling behind western countries, UAE has been in the leading position among Arab countries on its gender equality performance, according to the Global Gender Gap Index, a report by the World Economic Forum (Kapur, 2011). Emirati women, despite the heavy influence of traditional beliefs regarding gender, are now encouraged to pursue higher education and to advance their careers in the public or private domains.The first group of 17 women joined the Dubai Police in 1977. After receiving 4 months intensive training, the 17 women joined the police force in Dubai and became the first batch of women police in the Dubai history. Nowadays, more than 1,400 female police officers work at the Dubai General Police Headquarters with different ranks (See Chu & Abudulla, 2014 for a comprehensive review).
Policewomen in Taiwan
The first group of women joined the Taiwan police force in 1948. As in most of the countries in the globe, when women first joined the police force in Taiwan, their duties were restricted to administrative or specialized work, such as clerical work or handling women or juvenile cases (Chu & Sun, 2014; Chu, 2013). Until 1977, women had been recruited into the police force on a regular basis. As time progresses, women police’s duties have been expanded to a wider range, such as traffic management, forensic analysis or order maintenance during important festivals (see Chu, 2013 for a comprehensive review on policewomen in Taiwan). Following the enactment of the Gender Equality in Employment Act (GEEA) in 2001, women has been provided more opportunities to enter various professions that were primarily dominated by males in the past, such as military, fire fighting, or policing. For the past couple of years, the police administrations have been under pressure to recruit more women into the police force to minimize the gender gap. In compliance with the laws regulated equality in employment, the nation began a campaign to recruit more female police officers and to offer them a wider array of assignments (Gingerich Chu, 2013). The percentage
Literature Review
Motivations for Entering Law Enforcement and Career Aspirations
As with other career choices, a number of reasons may underlie why males and females choose policing as a career path. The most frequently cited reasons for this career decision are the desire to help others and the nature of the police work (Cumming, Cumming, &Edell, 1965; Raganella& White, 2004). Charles (1982) found job security and helping others are the most common reasons indicated by the sampled female officers who choose to enter law enforcement in the United States. Likewise, Ermer (1978) found that salary and helping others are most cited reasons for female officers to enter the law enforcement field. The findings from a recent survey conducted with 131 recruits and recent graduates (117 males and 14 females) from a north-eastern police academy in the United States revealed that opportunities to help others and job security are the top two reasons for the career choice (Foley, Guarneri, & Kelly, 2008). In a recent national survey with female officers in the US, Seklecki and Paynich (2007) found that a majority of the sampled officers listed “the desire to help others” astheir primary reason for entering law enforcement (SekleckiPaynich, 2007).Most of the empirical studies that examinepeople’s motivations for choosing police career have been conducted in the US.In recent years, a few of similar studies have been conducted in Asia. In their survey exploring Taiwanese police university students’ motivation for career selection, Tarng, Hsieh, and Deng (2001) discovered different motivationsbetween male and female students. Male students listed“good salary and fringe benefit” as the most important reason for their career selection, while female students identified the“influence of parents” as the crucial factor in their decision(Tarng, Hsieh, & Deng, 2001, p 53). Examining a sample of 220 female officers in Korea, Kim and Merlo (2010) found that “adventure and excitement” and “positive image of the job” are the top cited reasons underlying the female officers’ decision to enter law enforcement (p, 9 & 10).
Self-Efficacy and Job Related Satisfaction
Job satisfaction has been found to be associated with enhanced productivity and commitment, lower rates of absence and turnover, and greater organizational effectiveness (Abdulla, Djebarni, & Mellahi, 2011). Previous studies have examined how police officers’ race, gender and organization variables affect their satisfaction with their work. Some studies have found that female officers were less likely to be satisfied with their work in comparison with their male colleagues (e.g., Buzawa, Astin, & Bannon, 1994). Yet, the variations in the level of satisfaction between male and female officers were trivial. Some studies did not find a notable difference in officers’ job satisfaction by gender or race (e.g., Zhao et al., 1999). Findings regarding the relationship between officers’ educational level and job satisfaction have been mixed. Some studies saw a positive correlation between officers’ educational level and job satisfaction, while other studies discovered a negative association (e.g., Lefkowitz, 1974) or no correlations between the two variables (e.g., Buzawa et al., 1994). Length of work experience was found to be a more consistent predictor of officers’ job satisfaction among the demographic variables. Studies have found that officers’ tenure at work was negatively correlated with job satisfaction (Buzawa et al., 1994; Johnson, 2012).In other words, the longer the officer worked in the police force, the less satisfied he/she felt with work.
Although research has not explored whether police officers’ self-efficacy beliefs predict job satisfaction, studies on education have noted thatteachers’ perceived self-efficacy correlates with greater job satisfaction (Klassen & Chiu, 2010). Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s perception of his/her capability to carry out a particular task successfully (Bandura, 1997; Klassen & Chiu, 2010).Empirical studies indicated that self-efficacy beliefs were related to adaptability to new technology (Hill, Smith, & Mann, 1987), coping with job related problems (Stumpf, brief, & Hartman, 1987) and adaptation to institutional settings (Saks, 1995, StajkovicLuthans, 1998). Studies in education found that teachers with self-efficacy beliefs were more likely to be satisfied with the profession of their choosing as well as with supervisors’ performance appraisals (Trentham, Silvern, & Brogdon, 1985; Caprara, Barbaranelli, Steca, & Malone, 2006). Studies have also found that self-efficacy belief is an important determinant of work commitment and overall job satisfaction (Caprara,Barbaranelli, Borgogni, Petitta, & Rubinacci, 2003). Teachers with a sense of self-efficacy were more inclined to hold positive attitudes toward their colleagues and appreciate theirwork environments (Caprara et al. 2006).
Theoretical Framework and Research Hypotheses
As delineated in the above literature review, there are different reasons underlying why people choose policing as a career path. Helping others, job security and excitement associated with such work are the most commonly cited reasons for people to join law enforcement. Dubai, a financial spotlight in the Middle East, has becomes a desert miracle. With its influx of tourists and investors from all over the world, and its high level of economic activities, Dubaienjoysthe lowest unemployment rate in the United Arab Emirates, itself one of the richest countries in the world. The abundance of employment opportunities in the UAE are offered not only in the public sectors but also in private enterprises.
In contrast to the circumstances in the UAE, college graduates in Taiwan face unemployment and low salaries, problems that have received considerable societal attention in recent years. The number of higher education institutions in Taiwan has greatly expanded since 1986, and the number of college graduates far exceeds the number ofjob vacancies (Ho, 2013).In search of jobs, graduatesface keen competition. And in private sector work they also must accept low starting salaries. Thus, many students take the national examination and entergovernment work, in which they can receive relatively higher salaries and secure fridge benefits. Law enforcement is one of the career paths in the government sector. Given the different employment circumstances, it was hypothesized that female officers in Dubai would be more likely to join law enforcement for altruistic motivations, such as helping others. Taipei officers, in contrast, would more likely choose the police profession for practical reasons-- job security and financial benefits.Dubai, given the city’s high employability,women’s career selection may depend less on financial issues. Consequently, female officers in Dubai would be more self-efficacious than Taipei officers since they self-selected to enter law enforcement. As delineated in the literature section, individuals with self-efficacy beliefs are more likely to adapt to institutional settings and cope with job-related problems and challenges. Empirical studies revealed that self-efficacy is related to job satisfaction. Thus, it was hypothesized that female officers in Dubai would be more satisfied with their colleagues (co-workers and supervisors) as well as with their work and career, compared to their Taipei colleagues.
Methods
Data Collection and Samples
A survey instrument was developed for a search project entitled “gender integration in policing in a cross-national perspective” that aims to examine male and female officers’ attitudes toward women in policing and their job-related attitudes in various countries (regions) around the globe (Chu & Abudulla, 2014). The survey questions were modified based on the work of Austin and Hummer (1999), Burk, Richardsen, and Martinussen (2006), Greene and Carmen (2002), Haba et al. (2009), and Natarajan (2008). The current study, a part of the above mentioned research project, is based on data collected from female officers in two metropolitan cities in the United Arab Emirates and Taiwan, namely Dubai and Taipei.