I Science Chronology
This section lists the important events in climate science from 1800 to 2005. Events include scientific conferences, announcement of major discoveries, and publication of important climate studies.
Date / EventCirca 1800 / Atmospheric carbon dioxide and methane concentrations in the atmosphere hover around 270-290 parts per million (ppm) and 700 parts per billion (ppb), respectively.[i] Most scientists today use these numbers as a pre-industrial revolution baseline for comparison.
1800 / Accelerated buildup of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion and deforestation[ii]
1896 / Svante Arrhenius, a Swedish scientist, identifies enhanced greenhouse effect[iii] but fails to link the phenomenon to a cause.
1900 / CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 295 ppm[iv].
1950 / CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reaches 310 to 315 ppm[v].
1941 / In Vermont, the largest wind power source is connected the U.S. electricity grid.[vi]
1957 / Roger R. Revelle and Hans Seuss raised concern that the high level of CO2 emissions through the industrialization processes would alter the composition of the atmosphere.[vii]
1958 / Regular monitoring of atmospheric CO2 levels begins at Mauna Loa, Hawaii by the International Council of Scientific Union.[viii]
1988 / WMO and UNEP establish the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to provide ongoing full reports on the state of scientific consensus about climate change and its possible impacts, as well as ideas about possible response strategies.[ix]
1990 / IPCC First Assessment Report is released, asserting that the average global surface temperature has increased by 0.3 to 0.6 degrees Celsius since 1980,[x] this report is the first authoritative scientific assessment of climate change, which produced clear policy implications.
1990 / Methane concentration in the atmosphere reaches approximately 1,700 ppb.[xi] Notable sources of emissions include rice production and domestic ruminants: since 1890, cattle population has increased by 4 times; pig population by 9 times; and irrigated area by 5 times.[xii]
1990 / Atmospheric CO2 concentration reaches 354 ppm: since 1890, world population has increased by 4 times; energy use by 13 times; coal production by 7 times; and forest area decreased by 20%.[xiii]
1995 / The IPCC finalizes its Second Assessment Report in time for COP 2 (Geneva, 1996). Written and reviewed by approximately 2,000 expert scientists from a variety of fields world-wide, the Report concludes that “the balance of evidence suggests that there is a discernible human influence on global climate.” The Report also notes the availability of so-called no-regrets options and other cost-effective strategies for combating climate change.[xiv]
2001 / The IPCC finalizes its Third Assessment Report. The Report concludes that the evidence for humanity’s influence on the global climate is now stronger than ever before and presents a detailed picture to date of how climate change will affect various regions.[xv]
2004 / 2004 has recently been named the fourth warmest year on record. 2004 comes behind 2003, 2002, and 1998 as the third, second, and warmest year on record, respectively.
April 2005 / Over 150 delegates from 99 governments meet in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia from 6-8 April to consider the IPCC/Technology and Economic Assessment Panel (TEAP) special report entitled Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Issues Related to Hydrofluorocarbons and Perfluorocarbons. The report was prepared by Working Group I and Working Group III of the IPCC in collaboration with the TEAP of the Montreal Protocol.[xvi]
III. Industry Chronology
This section lists events and developments in industry sector that have significant climate consequences, with special focus on the energy and transportation sectors. Important industry-led initiatives that have international implications for formulating climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies are listed in this section.
Date / Event1905 / H. Piper, an American engineer, files a patent for a petrol-electric hybrid vehicle but the invention did take not take off commercially.[xvii]
1941 / On a hilltop in Rutland, Vermont, "Grandpa's Knob" wind generator becomes the first grid-connected supply of electricity (1.25 megawatts), delivering power for several months during World War II. Later renamed, the Smith- Putnam machine, the generator was removed from service in 1945.
7 October 1957 / A fire in the windscale plutonium production reactor North of Liverpool, England spreads radioactive material throughout the countryside. In 1983, the British government says that 39 people probably died of cancer as a result.[xviii]
1957 / A chemical explosion in Kasli, USSR (now in Russia) occurs in tanks containing nuclear waste spreads radioactive material and forces a major evacuation.[xix]
3 January 1961 / An experimental reactor at a federal installation near Idaho Falls, Id., kills three workers—the only deaths in U.S. reactor operations. The plant had high radiation levels but damage was contained. [xx]
1973 / OPEC imposes oil embargo against the US and the Netherlands because of their support to Israel in the 1973 Arab-Israeli War. The Arab oil embargo comes at a time of declining domestic crude oil production, rising demand, and increasing imports. The embargo is accompanied by decreased OPEC production, and with minimal global excess production capacity available outside OPEC, creates short-term shortages and price spikes. When the embargo is lifted six months later, world crude oil prices has tripled from the 1973 average to about $12 per barrel, and OPEC firmly controls the world oil market. This event underscores US vulnerability to oil supply disruptions and generates increased interest in alternative energy sources.[xxi]
1974 / The Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) forms. The association represents the interests of stakeholders in the solar power industry and acts as a lobbying group in Washington, DC.
1975 / Cost of electricity from photovoltaic systems is 30 USD (of value in 1998) per Watt capacity.[xxii]
1977 / The Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), now the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), forms. NREL is a national laboratory that provides research and development support for solar and photovoltaic technologies.
1978 / Iranian Revolution results in a drop of 3.9 million barrels per day of crude oil production in Iran from 1978 to 1981.[xxiii]
28 March 1979 / The worst commercial nuclear accident in the U.S. occurred as equipment failures and human mistakes led to a loss of coolant and partial core meltdown at the Three Mile Island reactor in Middletown, Pa. Thousands living near the plant left the area before the 12-day crisis ended, during which time some radioactive water and gases were released. [xxiv]
1979 / The first wind turbine rated over 1 megawatt begins operating.
1979 / Federal funding for wind power research and development (R&D) exceeds $50 million. U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) funding for wind power R&D was $59.6 million in fiscal year 1978 (current year dollars), marking the first time the funding level surpassed $50 million. It remained above $50 million until fiscal year 1982, when it was reduced to $16.6 million (current year dollars).
1980 / The Iran-Iraq War breaks out and many Persian Gulf countries reduce oil production. OPEC crude oil prices increase to unprecedented levels between 1979 and 1981. [xxv]
1981 / OPEC production declines to 22.8 million barrels per day, 7.0 million barrels per day below its level for 1978. [xxvi]
1981 / Cost of electricity from windmills is 0.37 USD (of value in 2000) per kWh produced.[xxvii]
1982 / Solar One, a 10-megawatt central receiver demonstration project, begins operation and establishes the feasibility of power tower systems. In 1988, the final year of operation, the system achieved an availability of 96 percent.
1982 / Price of solar energy is 27 USD per Watt per peak hour.[xxviii]
1983 / The first in a series of Solar Electric Generating Stations (SEGS) is installed in 1983, with output sold to Southern California Edison Company. SEGS I uses solar trough technology to produce steam in a conventional steam turbine generator. Natural gas is used as a supplementary fuel for up to 25 percent of the heat input.
26 April 1986 / The worst accident in the history of the nuclear power industry occurs in an unauthorized experiment at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant near Kiev, USSR (now in Ukraine). Fires and explosions leave at least 31 people dead in the immediate aftermath of the disaster and spread significant quantities of radioactive material over much of Europe. An estimated 135,000 people were evacuated from areas around Chernobyl, some of which were rendered uninhabitable for years. As a result of the radiation released into the atmosphere, tens of thousands of excess cancer deaths (as well as increased rates of birth defects) were expected in succeeding decades. [xxix]
1986 / U.S. nuclear capacity is projected to decline from 99.1 GWe in 1994 to be between 61.4 GWe and 76.0 GWe by 2015.[xxx]
1986 / Crude oil price collapses because of a glut of crude oil in the world market.[xxxi]
1987 / Cost of electricity from photovoltaic systems becomes 4 USD per Watt capacity.[xxxii]
1989 / Lowest point in federal funding for wind power of the 1980s in the US.
1990 / Cost of electricity from windmills becomes 0.08 USD (of value in 2000) per kWh produced.[xxxiii]
1992 / The biggest array of thin film photovoltaic modules ever assembled starts operation in Davis, Calif. Built by Advanced Photovoltaic Systems, the 9600 modules convert sunlight into electricity delivering up to 479 kilowatts, enough for 124 homes.[xxxiv]
1994 / The first solar dish generator using a free-piston Sterling engine was tied to a utility grid.
1994 / Price of wind energy in the United Kingdom is 4.3 pence / kWh.[xxxv]
1995 / Department of Energy (DOE)'s advanced turbine program, funded at $49 million, has led to new turbines with energy costs of 5 cents per kWh of electricity generated.
1996 / The US has only one nuclear unit under construction. Six units are classified as indefinitely deferred with very little likelihood of ever being completed. The Tennessee Valley Authority completes one station by 1996. [xxxvi]
1996 / Worldwide, there are 98 nuclear units under construction. The Far East region has 37 units, more than any other region in the world. South Korea started constructing 5 units in 1994. [xxxvii]
October 1997 / Toyota launches the Prius - the first mass produced petrol-electric hybrid car that is powered both by an internal combustion engine and an electric motor. Its emissions of smog-forming pollutants are 90% lower than a conventional car. It has better fuel economy rating for urban driving (51 miles per gallon) than for motorway driving (51 miles per gallon) – the opposite of a conventional vehicle.[xxxviii] Government ratings put the Prius's petrol consumption at an average of 60 miles per American gallon (mpg) in city driving—three times the mileage of, say, a sports-utility vehicle.
1998 / Price of wind energy in the UK falls to 2.88 pence / kWh.[xxxix]
1998 / Cost of electricity form photovoltaic systems is 4 USD (of value in 1998) per Watt capacity.[xl]
April 1999 / Two fuel-cell cars, one from DaimlerChrysler and one from Ford, are tested around the streets of Sacramento, California, the first state to pass a historic zero-emission vehicles law.[xli]
1999 / Los Alamos National Laboratory’s researchers, in collaboration with a consortium of energy companies and research institutes, form the non-profit Zero Emission Coal Alliance (ZECA) to further the Zero Emission process. The method aims to process heat recycled from fuel cells to reduce carbon dioxide by 50% even without disposal, and to capture all emission products.[xlii]
December 1999 / Ford unveils the 70-mpg Prodigy fuel-cell hybrid for 2003 production; Honda, a carbon-fiber hybrid concept SUV; Mitsubishi, a hybrid SUV; Ford and Nissan, fuel-cell hybrids; and Toyota, a hybrid van.[xliii]
2000 / Cost of electricity from windmills is 0.04 USD (of value in 2000) per kWh produced.[xliv]
2001 / New renewable energy such as wind, geothermal, and solar energy occupies 0.8% of global electricity generating capacity.[xlv]
2001 / The ZECA Corporation starts working on the design for a pilot plant that will produce electricity at efficiency levels of approximately 70 percent (twice that of current coal-fired plants). The pilot plant will capture all of carbon dioxide produced has and provide zero emission of any pollutants to the atmosphere.[xlvi]
October 2001 / Six of the world's smoggiest cities (Mexico City, Sao Paulo, Cairo, New Delhi, Shanghai, and Beijing) received fuel cell buses. The $60 million program was funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), a financial mechanism funded by the UN and World Bank for projects with global environmental benefits.[xlvii]
12 December 2003 / Continuous electronic trading of greenhouse gas emission allowances and offsets through the Chicago Climate Exchange begins based on a voluntary cap-and-trade program. The members have made a legally binding commitment to reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases by four per cent below the average of their 1998-2001 baseline by 2006, the last year of the pilot program.[xlviii]
April 2004 / Ford unveils Escape, the world's first hybrid SUV, at a motor show in New York. The vehicle averages more than 38 miles-per-gallon during a thirty-seven hour non-stop test drive around Manhattan, logging 576 miles on fifteen gallons of gasoline with near zero emissions.[xlix]
October 2004 / Toyota nearly doubles its 2004 U.S. Prius market allocation.[l]
2004 / Price of electricity generated from geothermal plant ranges between 0.05 and 0.08 USD / kWh.[li]
2005 / Price of solar energy reaches 4 USD per Watt Peak.[lii]
January 2005 / General Motors releases Sequel - a new prototype hydrogen vehicle, which is able to drive 300 miles on one tank of hydrogen-roughly double what previous fuel-cell cars were able to achieve.
[i] McNeill, J. R. Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth-Century World. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 2000.
For further information, see IPCC, Climate Change 1995, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
[ii] McNeill, J. R.
[iii] Betsil, Michele M. Global Climate Change Policy: Making Progress or Spinning Wheels? in The Global Environment: Institutions, Law, and Policy, eds. Regina S. Axelrod, David Leonard Downie, and Norman J. Vig. Washington DC: CQ Press, 2005.
[iv] McNeill, J. R.
[v] Ibid.
[vi]
[vii] Betsill, Michele M.
[viii] Ibid.
[ix] Id.
[x] McNeill, J. R.
[xi] Ibid.
[xii] Id.
[xiii] Id.
[xiv] Climate Change Information Sheet 17:
[xv] Ibid.
[xvi] IPCC. “Information Note for the Press: Safeguarding the Ozone Layer and the Global Climate System: Available at
[xvii] “Why the future is hybrid?” The Economist Technology Quarterly, December 4, 2004, pp. 26-30.
[xviii] Notable Nuclear Accidents:
[xix] Ibid.
[xx] Id.
[xxi] “Petroleum Chronology of Events 1970-2000.” Energy Information Administration. Available at
[xxii] American Wind Energy Association, What Are the Factors in the Cost of Electricity form Wind Turbines? 2000; Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy, Renewable Energy 2000: Issues and Trends, 2001. Available at
[xxiii] Energy Information Administration.
[xxiv] Notable Nuclear Accidents
[xxv] “Petroleum Chronology of Events 1970-2000.”
[xxvi] Ibid.
[xxvii] American Wind Energy Association; Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy.
[xxviii] Solarbuzz. Solar Energy Costs/Prices. Available at
[xxix] Notable Nuclear Accidents
[xxx] Ibid.
[xxxi] Petroleum Chronology of Events 1970-2000.
[xxxii] American Wind Energy Association; Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy
[xxxiii] American Wind Energy Association; Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy
[xxxiv]
[xxxv] British Wind Energy Association. The Economics of Wind Energy. Available at
[xxxvi] Notable Nuclear Accidents
[xxxvii] Notable Nuclear Accidents
[xxxviii] “Why the future is hybrid?” The Economist Technology Quarterly, December 4, 2004, pp. 26-30.
[xxxix] British Wind Energy Association. The Economics of Wind Energy. Available at
[xl] American Wind Energy Association; Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy.
[xli] “Fuel cells hit the road.” The Economist, 22 April 1999; see policy chronology for details about the California law
[xlii] Los Alamos National Laboratory. Earth and Environmental Sciences, Feature Articles, ZECA Returns to Nature What Nature Gave Us. Available at
[xliii]Rocky Mountain Institute. “Hypercar Chronology.” Available at
[xliv] American Wind Energy Association; Energy Information Administration, US Department of Energy
[xlv] Vaclav Smil. Energy at the Crossroads: Global Perspectives and Uncertainties. Boston: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003.
[xlvi] Los Alamos National Laboratory
[xlvii] Hypercar Chronology. Available at the Rocky Mountain Institute,
[xlviii] Notable Nuclear Accidents
[xlix] Hypercar Chronology
[l] Hypercar Chronology
[li] National Geothermal Collaborative. Common Questions on Geothermal Energy. Available at
[lii] Solarbuzz