Genomic structure and chromosomal localization of human thioredoxin-like protein gene (txl).
Antonio Miranda-Vizuete and Giannis Spyrou#
Department of Biosciences at Novum, Karolinska Institute, S-141 57 Huddinge, Sweden
# To whom correspondence should be addressed: Dept. of Biosciences, Center for Biotechnology, Karolinska Institutet, Novum, S-141 57 Huddinge, Sweden.
Tel.: 46-8-6089162; Fax: 46-8-7745538; Email:
Abbreviations: EST, expressed sequence tag; STS, sequenced tagged site; Trx, thioredoxin; UTR, untranslated region.
The sequence data reported in this paper have been submitted to the GenBank Data Libraries under the accession numbers: AF143890 to AF143897 for human txl exons; AF143404 and AF143405 for the putative txl from D. melanogaster and C. elegans, respectively; and AF143898 to AF143900 for C. elegans txl exons.
SUMMARY
Human thioredoxin-like protein (txl) is a novel member of the expanding thioredoxin superfamily whose main characteristic is the presence, after the thioredoxin domain, of a C-terminal extension of 184 residues with no homology with any other protein in the databases. Txl is a cytosolic ubiquitously expressed protein and it has been copurified with a kinase of the STE20 family, which is proteolytically activated by caspases in apoptosis. However, no cellular function has yet been assigned to this protein. In the present study we report the genomic organization of the txl gene which encompasses approximately 36 kb organized in eight exons ranging from 96 bp to 303 bp. In contrast, intron sizes are much bigger ranging from 1.5 kb to 12 kb. Chromosomal localization of txl gene revealed that it maps at position 18q21, a region frequently affected in different human tumours. Furthermore, we have identified the putative homologues of txl in both Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans that display much closer homology to the known thioredoxins than the human txl protein. Indeed, critical residues for optimal thioredoxin activity are present in both Drosophila and Caenorhabditis txl but absent in the human protein suggesting that txl might have evolved to carry out a function different from the general disulfide reductase typical of thioredoxins.
Thioredoxins (Trx) are small, ubiquitous proteins that act as general protein-disulfide reductases via reversible oxidation of their conserved active site Trp-Cys-Gly-Pro-Cys (WCGPC)). Oxidized thioredoxin is reduced by the flavoenzyme thioredoxin reductase to its active form (Holmgren, 1985). Thioredoxin is a very compact protein with a globular three-dimensional structure constituted by a central core of five strands of b-sheet enclosed by four a-helices with the active site located on a protrusion of the protein (Eklund et al., 1991). So far, only two thioredoxins have been described in mammalian cells: Trx1 is a cytosolic protein with many different functions most of them depending on the redox active site (Holmgren, 1985) and Trx2 is a mitocondrial protein whose only function so far described is to act as a electron donor for a mitochondrial thioredoxin-dependent peroxidase, thus being a major antioxidant defense in this organella (Spyrou et al., 1997; Araki et al., 1999). In addition, some other proteins contain thioredoxin modules or domains in which some residues within the active site are changed. For example, PDI (protein disulfide isomerase) is an ER-resident protein constituted by four independent thioredoxin domains, two of them which have an active site where a proline residue is changed to a hystidine (WCGHC) and the other two domains with no active site but still maintaining the thioredoxin folding (Kemmink et al., 1997). Other ER-resident proteins like calcium binding protein-1 (CaBP1) and phospholipase C-a (PLC-a) contain two thioredoxin domains with the same substitution at the active site as PDI (Fullekrug et al., 1994; Bennett et al., 1988). The thioredoxin domain is also present in a nuclear protein termed nucleoredoxin in which the glycine residue of the active site is changed to proline (WCPPC) (Kurooka et al., 1997).
We recently described a novel member of the thioredoxin superfamily that we named txl (thioredoxin-like protein) that contains an extension of 184 residues at the C-terminus of the thioredoxin domain with no homology with any other protein in the databases. The protein is not a substrate for thioredoxin reductase, the physiological electron donor of all thioredoxins, and its mRNA is expressed in all the tissues investigated (Miranda-Vizuete et al., 1998). Later, Lee et al. identified the same protein (which they named TRP32) copurifying with a kinase that is proteolytically activated by caspases in apoptosis. They showed that txl is able to display some redox activity when DTT is used as electron donor with a truncated form expressing only the thioredoxin domain (Lee et al., 1998). Thus, it seemed that the C-terminal extension might regulate the activity of the thioredoxin domain although the same truncated domain is not able to be reduced by thioredoxin reductase (Miranda-Vizuete et al., 1998). As noted before, the main characteristic of thioredoxins is the conserved sequence of their active site Trp-Cys-Gly-Pro-Cys. Txl has a glycine residue instead of tryptophan and we speculated that this might be the reason for the lack of activity with thioredoxin reductase as the tryptophan residue has been described to stabilize the three-dimensional structure of the active site (Eklund et al., 1991). Taken together, these data suggest that the cellular function of txl might be not dependent of its redox properties.
In order to provide more insight into this novel member of the thioredoxin superfamily, we have determined its genomic structure and assigned its gene location at chromosome 18q21. We initiated our study identifying a partial genomic sequence (accession number AC007052) that displayed homology when compared with txl cDNA sequence. A detailed analysis of this entry showed that it contained the whole txl cDNA sequence structured in eight exons and seven introns spanning about 36 kb (Fig. 1). The position and size of the exons and introns as well as the sequence of the intron/exon junctions and intron frames are indicated in Table 1. The sizes of the exons are quite small, ranging from 96 bp to 303 bp. The first exon is the largest one and comprises of the 5´-UTR and the first 32 residues just before the active site. Exons 2 and 3 complete the thioredoxin domain and exons 3 to 8 comprise the C-terminus of the protein. Exon 8 also contains the 3´-UTR. The genomic organization of the thioredoxin domain of txl is very similar to the one of mitochondrial thioredoxin that is also organized in three exons[1] while it differs from the cytosolic thioredoxin as this one is organized in five exons (Tonissen and Wells, 1991). In contrast to exon size, txl introns are much larger ranging from 1.5 to 12 kb and all of them conform to the GT/AG rule for consensus splice junction sequences (Breathnach and Chambon, 1981) . Introns 2,3,4,6 and 7 belong to type 0 where introns occur between codons, intron 5 is type 1 interrupting the first and the second base of the codon and intron 1 is type 2 interrupting the second and the third base of the codon. In summary, the structural characterization of the gene encoding human thioredoxin-like protein reveals both similarities and differences with the structure of other thioredoxin genes.
To assign the chromosomal localization of txl gene we searched the STS (sequenced tagged sites) deposited at the GenBankTM against txl cDNA and identified one STS entry (STSG4286) that matched from base 1041 to 1165. This STS has been mapped between the markers D18S474 and D18S64 by PCR screening of a human-rodent radiation hybrid panel. These gene markers are located on chromosome 18 at 71-83 centimorgans from the top of the linkage group. We compared this location with the locations of other genes that have been mapped in the region and show that the position of the human txl gene can be assigned to chromosome 18q21 (Figure 2). This region of chromosome 18 has been extensively studied because its involvement in different types of tumors (Uchida et al., 1996; Ueda et al., 1997; Eppert et al., 1996). Bcl-2, an apoptosis inhibitor which was originally discovered as a proto-oncogene that is activated in lymphomas by translocation that results in its overexpression, also maps in the same region (Ohno et al., 1987). Thioredoxin has been involved in tumor progression as it has been found to be overexpressed in many human cancers and stimulates the proliferation of a wide variety of human solid tumors and leukemic cancer cell lines. Furthermore, a dominant-negative thioredoxin with its active site mutated is able to revert the transformed phenotype of human breast cancer thus suggesting that redox activity of thioredoxin is necessary for proliferation (Gallegos et al., 1996; Baker et al., 1997). The mechanism by which thioredoxin promotes tumor progression is not fully understood although stable cell lines expressing thioredoxin are protected from apoptosis (Baker et al., 1997). In this context, there is a primary line of evidence of how thioredoxin could be involved in this process as it can inhibit apoptosis by direct association with ASK-1, an apoptosis signal-regulating kinase, and dependent of the status of its redox active site (Saitoh et al., 1998). The fact that human txl is copurified with a protein involved in apoptosis (Lee et al., 1998) suggests that txl could also be involved in this process.
We used the human txl protein sequence to search for putative homologues in Drosophila melanogaster and Caernorhabditis elegans. We identified two overlapping EST entries in a Drosophila database (AI402225 and AI402230) that when translated, resulted in a similar protein to that of human txl (accession number AF143404). Similarly, the search in a Caenorhabditis database identified a genomic clone (Y54E10.contig235) from chromosome I that displays high homology to partial sequences of human txl protein. By computer assisted analysis of the sequence we were able to identify the putative C. elegans homologue of txl (accession number AF143405) and its genomic organization in three exons of 267, 499 and 247 bp respectively, separated by two exons of 1912 and 871 bp and both conforming the GT/AG rule. A comparison of the D. melanogaster and C. elegans txl together with human txl and Trx1 is shown in Figure 3. From the comparison of all these proteins, a very interesting pattern emerges as Drosophila and Caenorhabditis txl thioredoxin domains are much closer to human Trx1 than human txl. Indeed, critical conserved residues for optimal thioredoxin activity are absent in the human txl protein while they are present in the others txl members (Figure 3). For instance, Asp26 (all numbering referred to human Trx1) which participates in the charge stabilization of the active site by its negative charge is changed to a Lys residue with positive charge. Ala29 interacts by Van der Waals contact to Trp31 to stabilize the active site surface (Eklund et al., 1991). In human txl these two residues are changed to Met and Gly, respectively, and would not behave as the Ala-Trp pair. Finally, the other residue flanking the active site, Lys36 that stabilizes the thiolate in the active site is changed to a Leu residue with no charge and thus unable to stabilize the thiolate intermediate (Eklund et al., 1991). These substitutions would then explain the inability of human txl to be reduced by its physiological reductant thioredoxin reductase (Miranda-Vizuete et al., 1998). It would be of great importance the purification of any of the other txl homologues and to evaluate their reducing activity in the presence of thioredoxin reductase. The fact that txl seems to be present in lower eukaryotes but with important differences compared to the human protein strongly suggest the possibility that human txl had evolved to display a different function probably not dependent on its redox capacities. Its implication in apoptosis should be considered as human txl copurifies with a kinase of the STE20 family which is activated by caspases in apoptosis (Lee et al., 1998). Indeed, yeast do not have txl homologue neither developed apoptosis further supporting this possibility. Additional work is required to elucidate this questions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported by grants from the Swedish Medical Research Council (Project 13X-10370) and the TMR Marie Curie Research Training Grants (contract ERBFMBICT972824).
REFERENCES
Araki, M., Nanri, H., Ejima, K., Murasato, Y., Fujiwara, T., Nakashima, Y. and Ikeda, M. (1999) "Antioxidant function of the mitochondrial protein SP-22 in the cardiovascular system", J. Biol. Chem., 274, 2271-2278.
Baker, A., Payne, C.M., Briehl, M.M. and Powis, G. (1997) "Thioredoxin, a gene found overexpressed in human cancer, inhibits apoptosis in vivo and in vitro", Cancer Res., 57, 5162-5167.
Bennett, C.F., Balcarek, J.M., Varrichio, A. and Crooke, S.T. (1988) "Molecular cloning and complete amino-acid sequence of form-I phosphoinositide-specific phospholipase C", Nature 334, 268-270.
Breathnach, R. and Chambon, P. (1981) " Organisation and expression of eukaryotic split genes coding for proteins", Annu. Rev. Biochem., 50, 349-383.
Eklund, H., Gleason, F.K. and Holmgren, A. (1991) "Structural and functional relations among thioredoxins of different species", Proteins: Structure, function and Genetics, 11, 13-28.
Eppert, K., Scherer, S., Ozcelik, H., Pirone, R., Hoodless, P., Kim, H., Tsui, L., Bapat, B., Gallinger, S., Andrulis, I., Thomsen, G., Wrana, J. and Attisano, L. (1996) "MADR2 maps to 18q21 and encodes a TGFbeta-regulated MAD-related protein that is functionally mutated in colorectal carcinoma", Cell 86, 542-552.