April Beresford
RELG 325 –VL2
Portfolio, RELG 325
Reading Questions: Religion
- Explain the different religious perspectives discussed in Chapter One.
MATERIALISTIC PERSPECTIVE: the thought process that designates religion as a non-material concept. That is, to explain religion as a conceived idea and not an object that can be touched or physically manipulated. Religion is an illusion, a mental projection. Because we cannot see, taste, feel, hear or smell any part of a designated religion, it has the ability to be distorted or manipulated in an effort to evoke different emotions or behaviors from its followers. This has been a reality for many religions. In exploring Christianity and the changes it has experienced over the years, one would need to look no further than the humanities (art, sculpture, literature) to see that government has used religion to control citizens, or evoke strong emotions from them. In the 1600’s and the 1700’s there were religious images used to tell different aspects of Bible stories that depicted extreme fear and extreme love. This was a huge change from the previously tame and unemotional depictions that appeared previously. The religion had not changed, it was the same God, but a different message was being sent. Because not many citizens at that time were able to read, seeing these images and relating to them was the primary way that individuals were introduced to religion. Many of these pieces were commissioned by government officials in an effort to provoke civilians to obey government laws, and because there was no tactile way to verify the foundations or concepts of Christianity, there was no way to verify these imposed teachings. Religion is a mental experience, and has been shaped and reshaped over centuries.
FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE: the thought process that religion, as a whole, has a real purpose. “French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) proposed that humans cannot live without organized social structures, and that religion is a glue that holds a society together.” (Fisher, p.15) This perspective serves to explain how religion serves as a common bond between believers, and functions to guide their shared values and principles, and often designates to them a common purpose in life. It serves to include people into a virtual family, to avoid isolation and provide support. It is also under this perspective that we can include the governmental and political influences into religion.
FAITH PERSPECTIVE: the thought process that seeks to claim the mystical experience. The relationship with the unknown, and the perspective that identifies how important and powerful the religious relationship can be with the unknown. Followers of various religions believe wholeheartedly in the presence of their God, and the influence that God has on their whole being. This can be quite an intense experience, and seems to be a great source of comfort for most. More than simply hoping for the best, having faith in a God who is certainly present even if not seen, and seeks to have a personal relationship with each of his/her followers. Faith is the presence of an Ultimate Reality, which transcends this dimension.
2. After reading the chapter and reflecting, what observations, comments, points, etc. do you have regarding religions and religious beliefs?
Being raised a Christian in a community of mostly Christians, and residing in a primarily Christian country based on traditional Christian values, I have not had much exposure to other religious cultures. I find it most interesting to look at how similar religious systems are, and how many of them address the same fundamental needs in their followers, such as life purpose, personal validation, and participation in a cultural experience. On that same note, I also find it highly interesting to see how different religions attempt to explain facets of life differently, such as the female role or the existence of life after death. Religion seems to be both an empowering and wonderful experience, as well as a root cause for so many wars. There is certainly an unarguable negative side to organized religion. I especially agree with the statement made in the text, that “…because religions may have such a strong hold on their followers – by their fears, their desires, their deep beliefs – they are potential centers for political power.” (Fisher, p.37) I have been drawn to tears several times listening to or reading about the Jewish Holocaust, which was the purposeful slaughtering of millions of kind and honest families simply because they worshipped a different God. It especially hits hard because it was designed and implemented by a Christian political leader. I find it interesting but not surprising to narrow the religious experiences throughout the world down to three perspectives, but after careful contemplation I can see how these three perspectives serve to define the most important functions that religion serves in the human experience. Although I was raised a Christian, and still attend a Christian church, I am respect all peaceful religions. I am of the belief that not one of the established religions has all of the answers; there is no ‘correct’ belief. I agree with Wilfred Cantwell Smith (1917-2000) when he said, “…religions are themselves elusive, complex systems that do not fit neatly into labeled, reified categories such as ‘Hinduism’ and ‘Christianity’. And the experiential basis of religion means that it cannot be fully described and analyzed as an object.” (Fisher, p.20)
3. What are cultural inheritances? Discuss three examples of cultural inheritances. Why is it important to understand cultural inheritances?
Cultural inheritances include: assumptions, concepts, beliefs, world views, values, habits, truths and ways of thinking.
Beliefs: Webster’s dictionary defines ‘belief’ as “a state of habit of mind in which trust of confidence is placed in some person or thing” (Webster website, 2010). With the world wide web readily available and with mass telecommunications now extending around the world, we are experiencing more of a world culture now than ever before. Despite this, there are still many differences between cultures, geographically and ethnically. Certain populations of people have different value systems and expectations, based partly on religious training and culture, that are believed to be universal truths. For instance, many Judeo-Christian people living in the United States assume that mankind was created to dominate the earth, and the plants and animals living on it. Because of this belief, most Americans have a dietary plan based on eating several kinds of animals, and we have factory farms created where the quality of lives of the animals are not considered as much as the food that they provide. The belief is that this is the will of a God creator, that we are given the gifts of conscious thought and spirituality because we are a higher life form and it is our right to use the earth for our pleasure and our survival. In the Buddhist culture, humankind is not viewed as a dominant earth figure, but as a kin to all living creatures on the planet. Vegetarianism is not unusual for Buddhist followers, though eating meat is not strictly prohibited. In the Jewish culture, the belief is that humans are permitted to eat most animals but because they are so lowly they are considered to be dirty and must first be blessed in order to be acceptable as food products for humans, the ‘higher beings’. This is called “kosher”. The Seventh Day Adventists is a Christian subgroup that believe that animals are indeed subservient to humans but that is our responsibility as ‘higher beings’ to show empathy and kindness to them. The beliefs surrounding our relationships with animals is quite different between religions and cultures, and guides the way that humans and animals interact.
Concepts: Webster’s dictionary defines ‘concept’ as “something conceived in the mind; an abstract of generic idea generalized from particular instances”. The concept of salvation is different between religions. In Christianity, salvation is thought to be only possible through Jesus Christ, and it is because of his birth and death on Earth that humankind has been saved from sin, and those who believe in Jesus will not die permanently at the end of our earthly lives, but be born again in heaven. This is a totally different concept of salvation in the Buddhist religion, where the concept of deliverance from evil comes from meditation and studying of the ancient scriptures, in an effort of supreme enlightenment. The two concepts involved in the separate religions ultimately guide the goals of the religion, and essentially their purpose. Concept can be further demonstrated by looking at different definitions of eternal life. Those who believe in reincarnation are of the understanding that we live consecutive lives, moving up or down in consciousness based on the quality of lives that we have previously lived. The concept of eternal life in Christianity is one based on an infinite residency in heaven, with God. Concepts that are taught in religion are ultimately the building blocks from which religious teachings take hold, and they guide the ways its followers think and reason.
World Views: There are billions of people on this planet who live very different lives. Because of our different experiences, values, and beliefs, we all form a slightly different view of the collective world and cultures that we live in. For example, the United States has been fighting a war in Afghanistan and Iraq. We began as a war based on eradicating Islamic fundamentalists who use terrorist tactics to attempt to dominate and damage the Judeo-Christian values and American lifestyle because of their own religious beliefs. What we have now, ten years later, is a difference of world view. Americans believe that every human being has the God-given right to freedom, and that the world is filled with evil and temptation and sin. The Islamic fundamentalists that make up the Jihad believe that this is a male-dominated society and that anyone who does not worship Allah should die. This is quite different than traditional Islamic world views, that emphasize tolerance between religious cultures. Shift focus now to Native American cultures, who in large part believe that the world has been given to us as a gift and all living beings in it should be esteemed and praised. The world view of Buddhism is largely based on suffering and tolerance and the search for enlightenment. Taoism teaches that the world is like the yin and the yang, and that there is a delicate balance always present between the two separate forces that is out of human control. Indeed world view is related to the values, beliefs, and purpose of religion.
Understanding of the cultural inheritances of a religious culture is important in understanding the differences and similarities between those cultures. Religion is not an isolated or random occurrence; it is affected by the world and the people by which it is practiced. It changes with time and circumstance, and evokes all sorts of emotions from religious followers. Being aware of cultural inheritances not only allows us to take a critical look at the way we think and act, but also helps us to understand people who do not think or act the way that we do.
Reading Questions: Taoism
1. What does the word ‘tao’ mean? “Tao” means “way” or “path”. It is the rhythm of the universe, the way of nature and immortality (Fisher,2003).
2. In what country did Taoism originate? What is the role of nature in this religion? Taoism and Confucianism grew largely in China, and later spread to Japan and Korea. These two religions both arose from ancient traditions in the Shang dynasty (c.1751-1123 BC), but split into two distinct religions during the Chou dynasty (c.1122-221 BC) (Fisher,2003). Taoism is heavily reliant on the natural world. Taoism teaches balance and non-interference with the natural order of things, in addition to patience, non-action (wu-wei), humility, duality, and simplicity non-contention (True Tao,2010).
3. There are two kinds of Taoism: Philosophic and Religious. Philosophic Taoism is older and is based on the book Tao teChing and its teachings. Religious Taoism began in the 2nd C and began incorporated many gods, rituals etc. Research and explain these. Find (research on the internet) one ritual of Taoism and describe it. Find a picture of a Taoist temple and examine it. Philosophic Taosim focuses on the reading and understanding of the Tao Te Ching. Religious Taoism also uses the Tao Te Ching, but expands its practice to also incorporate gods and organized rituals. According to Derek Lin, a leader in American Tao who has authored books on the subject, the ‘Initiation Ritual’ is done by new Tao followers, who formally declare their interest in the Tao and their intention to seek it of their own free will. This is known as the ‘Qiu Dao’ ritual, and is part of the I-Kuan Tao religion. It is a staged interaction between the ordained Master (Dian Chuan Shi) and a new follower. During this ritual, the newcomer receives the Three Treasures of I-Kuan Tao, to begin their journey (Lin). The Temple of Original Simplicity in the Boston area is a modest size building with an open interior space, with lighting effects behind and around religious tapestries and figurines of prominent religious leaders and gods. Most of these are carved out of wood. A gong is centered in the room. There are candles, incense, and an altar in the front. It appears fairly simple in design, compared to Christian churches (Tao.org).
4. We will be focusing on Philosophic Taoism, which has no gods to it. The point of the religion is to understand the Tao (the Way of things) and to live in harmony with it. An aspect of the Tao is constant change. What exists is constantly changing, and changing in a very particular way, in movement from yin to yang. What are yin and yang? Yin and yang are two opposing forces that are in constant motion. Where one ends is the point that the other begins. The yin is the female aspect, dark and receptive. The yang is the male aspect, bright and assertive. “Wisdom lies in recognizing their ever-shifting, but regular and balanced, patterns and moving with them” (Fisher,2003). These two forces, together, make up the c’hi, which is the energy from which we all live.
5. How is the conception of the Tao (note: this question is about the conceptions, not the religions) different from the Judeo/Christian/Islamic conception of God? According to Christianity, God is said to be a being. Although God does not have a physical form, he has been designated to be male, and he has a personal relationship with his followers. When God, ruling from the heavens, turned his back on the world of sin (ours), he sent his only son to Earth to save humans. The human form was named “Jesus” and together, with the Holy Spirit, forms a sort of trilogy. “The central message of Christianity is that Jesus Christ is God the Son who came to earth to rescue sinners not only from a life of sin but also from eternal damnation in hell” (Christianity, 2010). The Christian God and Jesus can be, and should be, prayed to, and God answers prayers. God made rules, known as the Ten Commandments, to ascribe how humankind should behave. God acts through disciples here on Earth, and after life on earth believers can look forward to a life with Him after death. God is often seen and addressed as a fatherly figure, a parent. Christians believe that God is the ultimate creator of heaven and earth, the ultimate judge of character, and the only God of man. (Christianity, 2010). In Christianity, God is a being, not a concept, and it is His will that brings joy and pain, sadness and hope, balance and unbalance.
In Taoism, the Tao is not a being. Unlike the Christian God, the Tao is not personal and the Tao is not divided into three. The Tao is the balance from which life can exist, and without Tao life would be one-sided and would fall apart. The Tao is not a deity that can be prayed to. The Tao cannot don an earthly body, have an established residence, and doesn’t define right or wrong (Fisher, 2003; True Tao, 2010). The Tao does not judge or expect worship and praise.
(7)The Tao is infinite, eternal.
Why is it eternal?
It was never born;
thus it can never die.
Why is it infinite?
It has no desires for itself;
thus it is present for all beings.
The Master stays behind;
that is why she is ahead.
She is detached from all things;
that is why she is one with them.
Because she has let go of herself,
she is perfectly fulfilled. (Tao Ching Te)
Tao is a feeling, a movement, a need to merge opposites. Life in harmony with Tao lives with principles rather than laws or commandments. This is quite different than a Christian God, whose job it is to filter and separate good and evil (Satan/sin).
(5)The Tao doesn't take sides;
it gives birth to both good and evil.
The Master doesn't take sides;
she welcomes both saints and sinners. (Tao Ching Te)