Attitudes to Nature by John Passmore
Presentation by Alex Schwarz and Lydia Comley
· Nature is that which, setting aside the supernatural, is human neither in itself nor in its origins
· Natural world viewed as “strange” since early on
o We cannot interact with animals through argument or entreaty
o We cannot find a human creator to identify with in terms of natural objects
· Used to think that natural processes had intentions and were capable of being influenced like human beings
o This view has been rejected by the Graeco-Christian Western world
· Stoic Christians believe in the uniqueness of man
o Results in nature being viewed as less strange as the natural world is made by G-d for man to use
o Plants and animals are tools
· This Christian Doctrine does not trace back to the Old Testament
1) It says nature exists and thrives whether man is present or not
2) G-d knows best what we need, and created the Earth exactly as it should be, and to change it is to be presumptuous
· After the crusades, establishment of mechanical arts ie. windmill and compass
o Many viewed them as diabolical as to make the tasks G-d created for us easier was to go against him
o Made it seem as if sin in Garden of Eden never happened
· Christian theology and Greek cosmology agreed that no object was in itself sacred
o G-d could take up residence in an object
o Not wrong to modify nature
· Loss of respect for nature led to view that it is only wrong to be cruel to animals if the cruelty results in negative behaviour towards humans
o If cruelty was seen as intrinsically wrong, than the human relationship to nature ought to be governed by moral considerations which do not boil down to a duty to merely human interests
· Descartes says that it is not wrong to cause suffering to animals because they do not suffer
o Suffering stems from Adam’s original sin, and this does not apply to animals
o Thought that mad should become master and possessor of the separate natural world
· Science-based technology dominates Western science
o In an attempt to make nature less “strange” we seek to understand it through analysis and the creation of laws
o We bring it under control
o Physics is ideal form of science, everything else is “stamp collecting” and inferior
o Some philosophers think nature is more human-like than Descartes admits
· Post-Cartesian metaphysicians held that nature is man-centered
o It does not exist if man is not perceiving it
· Depreciation in natural beauty
o Regret that nature does not make perfectly geometric shapes as it is a reminder of Adam’s sin in Eden
o Thus, humans try to shape it
o It is the human task to convert the world into one large garden
· Two Main Philosophies to Nature
o The natural world is completely malleable by humans
o According to religion, men are ultimately safe in a universe that is designed to secure their interests
· Throughout history philosophy has defended an anthropocentric view of the world, which has resulted in the exploitation of nature
· As a result, ecological critics of Western civilization are calling for a new religion, a new ethics and a new metaphysics
· The fact that the older metaphysics and ethics have encouraged the exploitation of nature DOES NOT provide enough grounds for demanding a new metaphysics or a new ethics
o The older metaphysics and ethics have been above all based on rationality.
o According to Passmore, “it is not by abandoning our hard-won tradition of rationality that we shall save ourselves…” from our exploitative attitudes towards nature.
o Therefore, it is NOT necessary that we develop a new metaphysics or a new ethics, for the basis of the old metaphysics continues to be effective.
· John Passmore believes that any satisfactory philosophy of nature must recognize the following:
1) “That natural processes go on in their own way, in a manner indifferent to human
interests,” and even human existence.
2) “When men act on nature, they do not simply modify a particular…substance,”
they in fact interact with a system of interactions, thus setting about new
interactions. (The Butterfly Effect)
3) “In our attempts to understand nature, the discovery of physics-type general laws
is often of very limited importance.” Which is due to the fact that when it comes
to understanding biological and/or social structures, physics based relationships
are often not very important
· We must learn to cope with the fact that:
o natural processes are indifferent to our existence
o the natural world is incapable of caring about us
o nature is complex in a sense that inhibits us from being able to completely master and transform it
· A New Metaphysics
o Due to the fact that most traditional philosophies to nature do not satisfy the aforementioned conditions Passmore believes that we need a new metaphysics
o The new metaphysics will have to be one that doesn’t think of nature as being dependent on man, malleable by man, or as being “constructed as to guarantee the survival of man.”
o The new metaphysics will have to be naturalistic but not reductionist
· A Little More History
o Stoics – humans cannot survive if they were required to act justly towards humans
o Others believe that man should reduce their claims on nature to the barest minimum
o Passmore thinks that man cannot survive except by being a predator to some degree
o Many moral philosophers refer to plants and/or animals as having interests
o Passmore feels that it is inappropriate to speak of animals as having interests, unless by interests needs are actually implied
o He also believes that human communities are different from the community humans form with nature.
· A New Ethics
o The call for a new environmental ethics has come about as a result of the need to justify blaming those whose who mistreat nature for all the environmental damage they have caused
o A new ethics is not needed at all since existing ethical principles provide us with enough justification for doing so
· A New Attitude to Nature
o Before a new attitude is created we must first free ourselves the following notions:
1) That nature exists as something to use
2) That human actions against nature are only wrong if they affect human
interests
3) That as long as we view nature as strange we will not take any interest or
feel any concern for it
o Additional topics to consider before creating a new attitude:
1) Attitudes toward non-sentient beings
2) The willful destruction of nature as being the same as the destruction of artifacts (Vandalism)
3) Failure to appreciate the natural scene = human weakness, as would be a failure to appreciate art
· Conclusion
o “If we can bring ourselves to fully admit the independence of nature…we are likely to feel more respect for the ways in which they go on.”
o Nature should be viewed as something to be admired, and enjoyed sensuously, and studied for purposes unrelated to its manipulation
· Criticisms
1) Article not well-structured
2) Time-frame not adequate
3) He presents ideas but does not argue them
4) Based on three conditions for his philosophy of nature, Passmore makes two
inconsistent conclusions