Learning Within and Across Cultures: Fostering Creativity and Innovation in the New Age

Learning within and across Cultures: Fostering Creativity and Innovation in the New Age of Organizing

Maria Cseh, Smita Kumar and Elizabeth Cavallaro

The George Washington University, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT: The 21st century brought paradigmatic changes in every aspect of our lives including our work. From an organizational and work perspective, we could call this period the age of new ways of organizing. This is the age where the typical organizational and work structures are changing almost overnight. The rapid development of new technologies and means of communication as well as the diminishing barriers across the globe, are allowing for the development of global teams, organizations, partnerships and networks. These working environments bring together people living in different regions of the world, coming from different cultures, and speaking different languages for the purpose of accomplishing complex tasks. Given the exponential change in the way work is organized and the different cultural learning paradigms of the global workforce, human resource development (HRD) professionals are called to understand and incorporate them into the facilitation of learning at the individual, team, organizational and societal levels. The purpose of this working paper is to rekindle the dialogue on worldviews of adult learning presented in the 2006 special issue of Advances in Developing Human Resources in our quest to understand how HRD professionals can leverage cultural learning paradigms to foster creativity and innovation.

KEY WORDS: cultural learning paradigms, learning, culture, adult learning, indigenous learning, multicultural learning

The rapid development of new technologies and means of communication in the past two decades, as well as the diminishing barriers across the globe, are allowing for the development of global teams, organizations, partnerships and networks. These working environments bring together people living in different regions of the world, coming from different cultures, and speaking different languages for the purpose of accomplishing complex tasks. Leveraging the different cultural learning paradigms in these environments has the potential to foster creativity and innovation.

Recalling a multicultural learning experience facilitates the ability to solve problems in multiple ways, increases awareness of underlying connections and associations, and helps overcome functional fixedness, all important factors for creativity and innovation (Maddux, Adam & Galinsky, 2010). The importance of indigenous learning both from a research and educational perspective is on the forefront of the current scholarly dialogue as showcased at the 2012 American Education Research Association (AERA) conference held in Vancouver, Canada on April 13-17. The theme of the conference "Non Satis Scire: To Know is not Enough" as it related to indigenous learning was captured in the opening plenary session on "The knowing circle of indigenous education: It is not enough just to know," in distinguished lectures and several conference presentations. Despite the recent attention to different ways of learning and knowing, there is a dearth of research on how adults construct their meaning of learning in different cultures.

Purpose of the Study and Methodology

The purpose of this conceptual working paper is to discuss the learning paradigms of different cultures on the path towards developing a multicultural learning model. The assumption behind this discussion is that the exclusion of different cultural learning paradigms, such as indigenous ways of learning, fails to foster the creativity and innovation needed in the achievement of our contemporary complex tasks. There is value in examining how different cultures learn, as well as how learning happens across cultures. A lot of knowledge and understanding has been lost over the ages, especially as new generation discards the traditions of the old generation (e.g., indigenous ways of learning) and as colonization and the spread of western education practices had a devastating impact on indigenous learning (Marlens, Hurst & Grossan, 2011).

The methodology of the literature review that informed this working paper involved a search of multiple databases: EBSCO, ERIC, Academic Search Premier, PsychInfo and GoogleScholar using the following search terms alone and in combinations: learning, culture, learning paradigm, learning model, learning process, cross-cultural, multicultural, intercultural, global learning, and indigenous learning. The paper is organized within two major themes that emerged from the literature: learning within cultures, and learning across cultures. Learning within cultures considers how culture impacts the learner, the role of the teacher/facilitator of learning, and the learning processes. Learning across cultures looks at multicultural learning experiences, the impact of diversity on learning, and its benefits and challenges for the global environment. The paper concludes with preliminary discussions and recommendations for HRD research, education and practice.

Learning and Culture

The literature search revealed multiple definitions of learning and culture. For the purpose of this paper, learning is a process involving the acquisition of cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes (Bloom, 1976), through study, instruction, or experience (Maddux et al., 2010), resulting in the translation of context specific experience into more generalized knowledge, then application back to context specific knowledge (Kayes, Kayes & Yamazaki, 2005). Jarvis (2009) described learning as,

The combination of processes, throughout a lifetime whereby the whole person – body (genetic, physical and biological) and mind (knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, meaning, beliefs and senses) – experiences social situations, the context of which is then transformed cognitively, emotively or practically (or through any combination) and integrated into the individual person's biography resulting in a continually changing (or more experienced) person. (p. 25)

Culture is characterized as a dynamic system of values, expectations, and associated practices that help organize people’s daily lives and mediate their thoughts and actions (Greenfield, 2009). It is a learned, shared, compelling, interrelated set of symbols whose meaning provides a set of orientations for members of a society (Ralston et al., 1995) and it involves “the fabrics of meaning with which human beings interpret their experience and guide their actions” (Geertz, 1973, p. 42). Culture influences an individual's worldview, determines how problems are approached and solved, and influences how people make sense of their lives, therefore “issues of culture, language, cognition, community and socialization are central to learning” (Demmert, 2005, p. 18).

Learning within Culture

There are essential differences in learning models in different cultures and thus, in how people perceive learning and knowing and how they make sense of their world. As Li (2002) noted, “Culture is an important source of variation in examining beliefs about learning” (p. 47). Valiente (2008) also asserts that in learning - motivation, communication, and collaborative patterns work differently in different cultures. Thus, as presented in Table 1, cultural learning paradigms define the meaning of learning, the role of the learner, teacher/facilitator of learning and the process of learning (Brown et al., 2007; Chang, 2010; Cortazzi & Li, 1996; Kennedy, 2002; Lekoko & Modise, 2011; McLean & Johansen, 2006; Nsamenang, 2006; Schwabenland, 2011; Tucker, 1998; Ty, Walsh & Anurit, 2010).

Table 1: Learning within Different National Cultures

National culture / Meaning of learning and value attached to learning / Learner / Teacher / Learning Process
China / Xuexi (nearly exact meaning as learning) / Learner values hard work, effort, persistence, diligence, hardship, steadfastness, concentration, humility, desire.
Moral notion of self-improvement, self-cultivation / Teachers stress the importance of foundational knowledge.
Teacher perceived as authoritative source.
Teachers have a pastoral role to guide and mentor students outside of class / Tasks are presented step-by-step.
Learning is considered a lifelong pursuit.
Aims are both vocational and personal.
Cambodia / To be able to ‘do’ something; To acquire tools and techniques in a formal learning environment. / Discouraged to question.
Values hard work and observance of rules / The Teacher knows, and takes the responsibility of learning / Teaching methodology is didactic.
Suppresses independent and analytical thinking
Japan / Learning (Gaku) is a progression from imitation (kó) to realization (kaku) / High levels of external orientation
Achievement focused
Strong group orientation / Compliance with authority is expected / Seishin: The mental attitude that helps one tackle a task
Gambaru: a positive orientation towards the intrinsic benefits of persistence
Thoroughness in learning approaches is valued
Nigeria / Learning and intelligence are equated to human development, from a life cycle perspective, in phases of spiritual, social, and ancestral selfhood. / Required to attain and grow physical, cognitive, social and emotional competencies for engaging fully in family and society. / Focuses on nurturing. / Socialization is an important aspect of the learning process.
Learning is through participation
United Kingdom / Conceptual development of the person / Individualistic
Values independence, task efficiency, competition, self-esteem, social competence / Reflective and analytic teaching approaches / Creative and explorative process
USA / Learning is about thinking, mental processes, and inquiry / The mental processes of the learner are important.
Learner qualities such as intelligence, cognitive skill, creativity and motivation are considered important / The facilitator invites participation and draws on the knowledge of learners through interaction / The learner is actively involved in the learning process.
Communicating is central to learning. The learning process is participatory and interactive, involving debate and critique.

Language and Meaning Making. Language reflects cultural values and creates in the mind, an image and a feeling symbolic of a certain concept. Words used to convey learning in different cultures have different root meanings. “Language is the tool of communication and permeates all aspects of learning… as through language, we not only convey our thoughts, feelings and intentions, but also relate to other people” (Ramburuth & Tani, 2009, p. 184). For example, language has been shown as a major factor impacting learning and confidence in students. “Nuances in meanings of words that appear to be synonyms or obscure cultural and literary references…professional jargon, the use of slang, and individual peculiarities of accent…compound language difficulties of students from diverse backgrounds” (Ryan, 2000, p. 29).

Culture and the Learner. Culturally oriented factors are frequently identified as positive or negative causal factors in student learning experiences (Ramburuth & Tani, 2009). The brain uses previous experience as pathways to perceive and process information, so perceptions of experiences and knowledge from the cultural context alter the flow of mental processes (Nathan, 2008). Motivation to learn is also embedded in the culture of the learner. For example Australian students were found to be motivated by getting ahead of others and being competitive, while Asian students were motivated by social approval and need for achievement (Niles, 1995).

Culture and the Role of the Teacher/Facilitator of Learning. The role of the teacher is different within different cultures. In national cultures where there is a greater power distance, the teacher plays an authoritarian role. The teacher imparts knowledge and the learner receives the knowledge with obedience and submission. For example, Chinese teachers stress the importance of foundational knowledge, the teacher is perceived as the authoritative source, tasks are presented step-by-step, and teachers have a pastoral role to guide and mentor students outside of class (Kennedy, 2002). In national cultures where there is a smaller power distance the teacher is a facilitator of knowledge, drawing upon the knowledge of the learner through an interactive process.

Culture and the Process of Learning. Culture is seen as a tool for knowledge creation and dissemination in a social environment (Chang, 2010), therefore learning processes evolve based on cultural needs. For example, culture influences how individuals learn in collaborative and online environment. A learning environment involves learners’ cultural background that impacts interaction and communication amongst the members, key to collaborative learning (Economides, 2008). Learners from a colectivistic society prefer a formal relationship with the facilitator, defined roles and relationships among the group members, and planned activities, while those from an individualistic society prefer informal relationships and are more flexible with their time (Economides, 2008). Ramburuth & McCormick’s (2001) study of Australian and Asian international students suggest that Asians have a preference toward collective learning, while Australians toward individualistic learning. Japanese students are considered conservative, research driven and having hierarchical relations with their professors, while American students are action oriented, have respect for deadlines, fast-pace, and stressful work (Agerup & Busser, 2004). Yang, Olesova, & Richardson’s (2010) empirical study on online learning behaviors of Asian-based and European-based students show that Asian-based groups are more conservative, less self-expressive and formal in their communication style, while European-based groups are more expressive, direct, emotional and straightforward in discussions (p. 14).

Besides national culture, religious beliefs or philosophical affiliations also have a strong influence on how learning occurs. Table 2 summarizes some of these differences as reflected in the literature (Ashok & Thimmappa, 2006; Akdere, Russ-Eft, Eft, 2006; Ardichvili, 2006; Beck, 2006; Grover & Keenan, 2006; Johansen & Gopalakrishna, 2006; Nakufho, 2006; Papuni & Bartlett, 2006; Nielson, Madsen & Hammond, 2006; Yang, Zheng, & Li, 2006) .

Table 2: Learning within Different Religions/ Philosophies of Life

Culture / Meaning of learning/ value attached to learning / Learner / Teacher / Learning Process /
Hinduism / Learning is a continuous process.
Emphasis on formal and self-study / Introspection and self-study based on personal experience emphasized.
Learners encouraged to ascend from egocentric orientation to socio-centric and cosmos centric ones. / Learning is the responsibility of the teacher / Learning environment to foster unison of self with the ultimate.
Use of subjective and experiential methods of learning.
Learning through practice of righteous actions
Confucian / Learning is critical to unify theory and practice in a heuristic approach / The learner moves linearly from passive receiving to analyzing to active inquiring / Didactic and instructor centric / Emphasis on hierarchy and stability.
Confucianism - linear process of knowledge formation - memorization brings familiarity that leads to understanding, finally it involves reflection and questioning
Buddhism / Teachings are more important than the teacher.
Learning is understanding / Promotes a spirit of inquiry.
Encourages observing, analyzing and testing for reason and for common good for all. / Teacher is compassionate and competent, not motivated by personal gain / Relationship between the teacher and the learner is critical.
Learning is to be based on understanding and not rote, to use both inductive and deductive approaches
Jewish / Emphasis is on lifelong learning, Learning is considered as an end itself / Need to solve a problem / Focus is on getting learners to solve problems in pairs or groups / Dialogic techniques, mentoring in a pair or foursome study groups. A discursive, questioning approach based on individual’s concepts of meaning
Islamic / God and knowledge cannot be separated.
Knowledge, education and learning are considered central to the Islamic view.
Learning is life-long and continuous. / To learn both worldly and heavenly knowledge. To go beyond the stage of knowing to being / Teacher is a spiritual and worldly advisor / Learning is a comprehensive process involving physical, intellectual, emotional and spiritual growth of the human personality.
‘Halqha’ is a team based adult learning tool where adults learn in study circles involving informal participation.
Mormonism / Life-long learning with an objective to become more like God. / Adult learners have the responsibility to provide their own temporal, emotional and spiritual needs / Adults with greater experience are encouraged to volunteer as mentors / Learning process has three key facets, life-long, building self reliance and mentoring approach.
Ubuntu / Adult learning is closely integrated to sociocultural initiation of an individual to adulthood and both society and individual are considered central to learning. / Encouraged to engage in dialogue and seek consensus / Teacher facilitates dialogue and consensus / Consensus and dialogue form the central aspect of adult learning
Maori and Pakeha / Holistic approach incorporating all four dimensions of the person-wairua (spiritual), hinenguro (intellectual), tinana (physical), and whatumanawa (emotional). / Sense of identity is important in Maori adult learning and both geography and lineage are considered significant. Lineage and family tree is considered to be an important tool for learning / Extended family is considered a social unit for learning. Group learning, face-to-face learning, discussions and related to daily task play a significant role in the learning process.
Ojibwe / Learning is a life-long approach.
Learning a responsibility of the community with an idea that the learner will become a teacher in future. / Learner is encouraged to observe, listen and reflects on tasks and lays emphasis on patience, / Teachers are greatly valued and considered to be masters of knowledge and are role models. / Learning process involves observation, thought, experience, and modeling.

Although religion/philosophies of life are integral part of national cultures, there is a dearth of studies analyzing the interplay between the two (e.g. learning within Hinduism in India and Bali).