Seymour Sarason
Psychological sense of community:
“the perception of similarity to others, an acknowledged interdependence with others, a willingness to maintain this interdependence by giving to or doing for others what one expects from them, the feeling that one is part of a larger dependable and stable structure. “
ZPsychological sense of Community
ZA sense of sharing an emotional bond, trust, and caring in a community.
ZYet there is a diminishing sense of community
ZDeclining volunteerism, charitable contributions, voting
Zparticipation in self-help groups has increased and other forms (email, IM, etc.
ZTypes of Communities
ZLocality-city blocks, neighborhoods, etc.
ZRelational not limited by geography (internet discussion groups, mutual help, religious congregations, labor unions, etc.)
ZTypes of Communities
ZLocality-city blocks, neighborhoods, etc.
ZRelational not limited by geography (internet discussion groups, mutual help, religious congregations, labor unions, etc.)
ZLevels of Communities
ZGroupings of individual. Who may not know all the other members, yet who share some sense of mutual commitment
ZMediating structures--religious congregation---mediate between indiv. And wider communities
ZSelf-Help Groups
ZA focal concern--problem, life crisis, or issue affecting all members
ZPeer relationships-rather than unequal
ZReciprocity
ZExperiential knowledge
ZReligion, spirituality, and communities
ZImportant force in community life
ZVolunteerism, charity, resource for personal coping
ZReligion vs. spirituality
ZA wider set of beliefs and practices associated this personal awareness of a transcendent power
Z90% of poll respondents believe in God
ZInvolvement in Community life. Meets primary human needs for:
Zmeaning and understanding
ZCommunity and belonging
ZAct as counterbalance to values of individualism and wider society
ZProvide meaning to oppressed
ZSocial Advocacy
ZPublic positions taken by religious institutions
ZUS civil rights---faith-based change initiative
ZNeighborhood
ZIntegral
ZHigh sense of neighborhood identity, internal interaction, external linkages
ZParochial
ZHigh sense of neighborhood identity, high internal interaction, low external linkages
ZNeighborhood
ZDiffuse
ZHigh sense of neighborhood identity, low internal interaction, low external linkages
ZNeighborhood
ZStepping Stone
ZLow sense of neighborhood identity, high internal interaction, high external linkages.
ZTransitory
ZLow sense of neighborhood identity, low internal interaction, high external linkages
ZAnomic
ZLow sense of neighborhood identity, low internal interaction, low external linkages
nStressors
nDaily Hassles
nLife Transitions
nAmbient/Chronic Stressors
nVicious Spirals
nStressors in Community Psych. Research
nHomelessness
nSchool Transitions
nNatural Disasters
nAppraisal
nPrimary Appraisal-estimation of strength or intensity of stressor
nSecondary-estimation of resources and coping options for responding
nBOTH are affected by personality factors
nLocus of control
nReappraisal
nReframing
nAppraisal
nMatters more when resources are ample and threats are moderate
nMatters less when major stressor, and similarly appraised by man
nCoping Responses
nProblem focused
nMore adaptive when stressor is controllable
nEmotion Focused
nMore adaptive when uncontrollable
nSometimes avoidant
nPart 1
nWhat is stress
nThe language of coping
nWhat is good coping
nThe role of positive emotion
nStress as
nA physiological fight or flight response
nA stressor (life event)
nAn imbalance of demands vs. resources
•WHAT’S MISSING??
nWays of thinking about stress
Fight or flight—physiological response
Life events—something that happens to you
nLife Events measures
nIdea was to identify objective stress
n42 events given various weightings
nDivorce of spouse 100
nDivorce 73
nWife begins or stops work 26
nFoerclosure of mortgage or loan 30
nVacation 12
nCharacteristics of the person that make a difference
nPriorities and goals
nValues
nBeliefs
nDevelopmental history
nPsychological, physical, and social resources for coping
nCognitive theory of stress
nKey concepts
nStress is contextual, it ivolves the person in a particular environment or situation
nStress is a dynamic process
nThe process is influenced by
nCOGNITIVE APPRAISAL
nCOPING
n(Lazarus and Folkman)
nRelational definition of stress
nA situation is stress when
nYou appraise it as a harm, threat, or challenge
nIt is personally meaningful—it matters to you
nIt taxes or exceeds your resources for coping, it is not easy to deal with
nCognitive appraisal
nWhat’s happening, am I ok
nWhat can I do
nDoes it matter (this is what makes the difference!)
nAppraisals are tied to emotion
nHARM OR LOSSS: Something>anger, sadness, guilt bad has happened
nTHREAT: Something bad >Worry, fear, anxiety
nCHALLENGE: There’s an opportunity for mastery or gain but risk is involved>excitement, eagerness, some anxiety
nStress in our lives
nEverywhere
nVaries in frequency
nVaries in intensity
nVaries in duration
nSO, What is a “normal” level of stress
nStress? How is it managed
nCoping enters the pictures
nCoping refers to the thoughts and action that people use to manage demands that are appraised as stressful
nCoping changes as a situation unfolds
nCoping is multi-dimenstional
nTwo major categories of coping:
nEmotion focused coping: Regulates distress emotions
nDistancing (distracting yourself; putting problems out of your mind)
nHumor
nSeeking emotional support
nEscape-avoidance (day dreaming, eating, using drugs)
nProblem-focused oping: Manages problems causing distress
nInstrumental coping
nProblem-solving
nLogical linear
nInformation-gathering
nFour general principles of effective coping
nFocus on specific situation rather than total stressful context
nAsk what made it stressful
nDistinguish changeable and unchangeable aspects of situation
nFit the coping to the situation
nFocus on a specific recent event that was stressful
nGlobal situation
nAn elderly parent or grandparent requires caregiving
nSpecific situation
nHe forgot to take his meds on Wed. This matters to me!
n#2 What made this stressful?
nDanger to her health if she doesn’t take her meds
nThis could be the beginning of serious cognitive decline
nHow will I manage to care for him
nWorry, fear, anxiety!
n#3 Identify what aspects of problems you can manage
What can be managed??
What has to be accepted???
nMatching the coping to the situation
nControllable aspects
nProblem focused coping, gather information, select strategy
nAspects that have to accepted
nEmotion focused coping “do relaxation exercises, seek emotional support
nPositive emotion and the stress process
nStudies show that positive mood predicts longevity
nTwo years study of 2282 Mexican Americans aged 65-99
nDirect rel. between positive affect at baseline and survival. “Our results support the concept that positive emotions is diff. from absence of negative. It protects against declines in old age”
nNun Study
nHand written autobiographies of 180 catholic nuns
nScored for emotion
nNegative emotions did not predict survival
nPositive emotions DID
nImplications
nNot PollyAnna
nNot denial
nThird form of coping
nMeaning-focused coping (generate positive emtions)
nRelinquish untenable goals
nSubstitute new goals that are realistic and meaningful
nHelps sustain a sense of control, purpose, and optimism
nTaking an ordinary event and infusing it with meaning
nFocus on what really matters (rearrange priorities)
nTake a moment
nReflect on the last time in the past 2 days when you felt gratitude pleasure or some positive emotion
nThink about what happened, who was there, what was happening
nShare with a neighbor
nWhat does thinking about the event do to your mood?
nsometimes you can go too far!
nSocial Support
nGeneralized--ongoing support
nSpecific Support
nEncouragement
nInformational
nTangible
nOptimal Matching
nEmotional--uncontrollable
nEncouragement--job loss, work stress
nTrangible--financial strain
nSome require multiple types
nCoping Outcomes
nPsychological or physical disorders
nThriving
nGoing beyond previous levels
nResilience
nMaintaining or returning to previous level
nWellness
nThe experience of positive outcomes (life satisfaction, job satisfacation,
self esteem, academic achievement
nGeneralized and
specific support
nGeneralized—relationships sustained over time
nNot tailored to one specific stressor
nMost clearly mdeneasured in term of perceived support
nSpecific—pertaining to a specific stressor
nCould include emotional encouragement, information or advice, or tangible assistance (loaning money)
nSocial Support
nWe had another bad week with David. Yesterday was a horrible day. He could hardly talk, swallow or walk. He was drooling heavily. He couldn't be left alone, even for a second. Of course, Doug was away in Europe all week, but my family was here and at the hospital with us, keeping us company and helping me cope.
nAgain, thank you all for your thoughts and prayers. We definitely could not be getting through this without all of you!
nSocial Support
nSources of support
nRelationships as stressors
nSocial Networks
nDimensionality
nCo-worker also a friend Jim and Pam
nDensity
n friends in network are friends with each other
nReciprocity
nThe relationship context of support
nNatural helpers, mentors
nRelationships as stressors
nFamilies and contexts
nGreater commitment, obligation
nGender differences in helping styles
nMutual Help Groups
Voluntary associations of people who share some status that results in difficulties with which the group tries to deal
nFocal concern
nPeer
nReciprocity
nCommunity narrative that embodies the experience
Online mutual help
nSpirituality and Religion
nPerhaps most useful at limits of resources and ability to cope
nCan help make sense of the “incomprehensible, unfathomable, uncontrollable” (Pargament)
nPersonal
nMeaning, coping
nSocial
nMembership and support within a congregation/community
nPrevention: Key Concepts
nPrimary Prevention
nSecondary Prevention
nTertiary Prevention
n5 concepts
nRisk
nAdditive/multiplicative
nProtection
nResilience
nStrengths
nAssets
nThriving-survival, recovery, thriving, transforming one’s priorities, sense of self, and life roles
nAlbee Equation
nStress + physical vulnerability
n------
nCoping skills + support + self-esteem
nElias Equation
nStress + env. Risk factors
n------
nPos. socialization practices + support + + opportunities for positive relatedeness
nPrevention programs: do they work?
nDurlak and Wells (1977) used meta-analysis to examine 177 primary prevention programs
nPrimary P: 59 to 82% of paricipants surpass the average perf. of control group
nSecondary P: 70% better
nCog. Beh. Approaches most effecitve
nMost effects for children 3-7
nPrevention policy
nServing as congressional staff member or with legislative or excecutive branches of government
nResearch, writing, and giving testimoney regarding effective prevention/promotion interventions
nConsulting with human service agencies
nStaff positions in Advocacy organizations
nImplementation
nVery little consistency
nAction research:
nputting theories and methods into practice,
nevaluating their impact
nusing the results to refine future theory, method, and practice
nInvolves ongoing cycles of program analysis, innovation (intervention) design, field trials, and dissemination
nThe central question: How does the program operate when carried out by agents other than the developers. 4 Stages
nExperimental
nTechnological
nDiffusional
nWidespread implementation
nEnduring implementation
nCarry out environmental reconnaissance
nEnsure strong agreement among stakeholders
nEnsure connection to core mission of host setting
nDevelop strong, clear leadership
nDescribe in simple terms
nImplementation
nIdentify core elements
nMeasure program implementation and goal attainment
nSearch for unintended effects
nEstablish external linkages with similar programs in other settings
nCase Study: Growth of Mentoring
nSufficiently promising
nChampioned by powerful constituencies
nAggressive growth goals
nImpatience
nVolunteer recruitment
nLess intensive approaches
nLessons learned
nModest findings
nHelped galvanize movement
nStimulated aggressive growth goals
nGoals necessitated
nImproved efficiency
nreduced fidelity
nLessons Learned from Replications
nPrograms must be adequately funded
nPrograms must be realistic with regard to numbers of youth served
nPrograms must adhere to fidelity guidelines
nPractitioners need to understand the theoretical and empirical framework
nPrograms that seek out technical assistance are more effective
nOrganizing for community and Social Change
nEmpowering vs. Empowered organizations
nEmpowering provide experiences for members that promote participation in planning and implementing the activities ofhte group.
nEmpowered org. are able to influence the wider community
nThree Instruments of Social Power (Gaventa)
nControl of the resources that can be used to bargain, reward, punish
nControl of channels for civic participation
nHearings, petitions, voting, agendas, legal requirements
nAbility to shae the definition of a public issue or conflict (spin)
nDynamic forces that ebb and flow
nPrevention and promotion
nMicrosystems: Workplace
nJOBS Project, Employee Competenceies
nMicrosystem-level prevention/promotion: Home
nPrenatal/Early infancy (Olds)
nFamily-based programs
nMicrosystem: Schools
nFocused on building student skills (Perry, Head Start, Shure)
Social Decision Making, Second Step, Life Skills Training
nBeyond Microsystem
nAltering Settings
nSchool Climate programs
nChanging School Configurations
nEmotionally Intelligent work places
Communitywide Macrosystem Interventions
Building community collaboration
Using Mass Media
Influencing state educational policies
nDetermining Effectiveness
nBest Practices Approach
nStudying specific types of programs that are effective and identifying the procedures that effective programs have in common
nRequires site visits and qualitative research
nMeta-Analyses of Research on Program outcomes
nTypically find that:
nImplementation intensity (dosge) and program quality strongly affect outcomes
nOutcomes are stronger when programs mobilize environmental supports from peer groups, schools, parents, and communities
nEffective Programs: Best practices
nAddress risk and protective processes
nInvolves families, peers, schools, comm. To address multiple goals
nAre appropriate to age
nStrengthen skills and values
nFocus on second order change (settings, communitie)
nInvolve skill training and support for staff
nMonitor local needs and program quality to promote continuous improvement
nImplementing Programs
nActive administrative support
nOngoing training and professional development
nIntegration of the program into the school
nSocial Power/Change
nSocial Action
nAlinsky-
nSocial power comes in 2 forms:
nOrganized money
nOrganized people
nCitizens using social action must
nIDENTIFY THEIR CAPACTIIES
nFind a situation (Shop-in)
nEffective Action
nClear goal
nReasonable actions required
nCause disruption
nCredible threat
nKey Points of tonight’s lecture
n Definition and dicussion of
nCitizen participation,
nEmpowerment
nSocial action
nEvaluation
nReview
nCourse evaluation
nCitizen Participation
n“A process in which individuals take part in decision making in the institutions, programs, and environments that affect them
nDecision making implies not just volunteering time or resources but providing input
nInstitutions, programs, and environments might include
nworkplaces, health settings, neighborhoods, schools, religious organizations, society at large
nGrassroots organizations like block associtions, political action groups, labor unions
n
nExamples of Citizen Participation
nEducation
nPublic input on environmental issues
nHealthy communities
nHealth issues important to community
nBlock and neighborhood associations
nPrevent crime, promote recreation
nAlternative settings
nShelter for battered women, rape crisis childcare
•
nCitizen Participation
nPredictors of participation in community efforts
nBeliefs about civic responsibility
nSense of community
nPerceptions of the efficacy of org.
nFrequency of informal neighborhood exchanges
nExtent of volunteering for other organizations (Religious)
nEmpowerment
nA process, a mechanism by which people, organizations, and communities gain mastery over their affairs” Rappaport
nAn intentional, ongoing process through which people lacking an equal share of resources gain greater access to and control over those resources
n Broader than citizen participation. May lead to it but involves more than just behavior. It’s an overarching theme with many meanings and implications.
ncentered in the local community,
ninvolving mutual respect, critical reflection, caring, and group participation
nKey qualities of empowerment
nMultilevel
nBottom-up approaches
nProcess of Empowerment—develops over time
nCollective—occurs through linkages with others
nElements of Psychological Empowerment
n
nPsychological empowerment involves thoughts, skills, motivation, etc. of person involved in community change. Created by becoming involved in community work.
nCritical awareness
nCritical judgement about situations
nSearch for underlying causes of problems and their consequences
nParticipatory Competence
nBehavioral skills for participating effectively in community decisions
nSustaining Participation
nRewards of participation
nOptimisim
nSpiritual/moral commitment
nChange at the Community Level
nThree instruments of Social Power
nControl of resources that can be used to bargain, reward, and punish
nControl of Channels of citizen participation (public hearings, signing petitions, voting, agendas)
nShape the definition of public issue or conflict
nApproaches to Community Change
nSocial Action (boycott)
nCommunity Development (strengthening relationships among members)
nConsciousness Raising (critical awareness)
nPolicy Research and Advocacy
nCommunity Development
nBuilding consensus
nBroaden opportunities for participation and influence in com decision making
nConsciousness Raising
nIncreasing critical awareness
nConnected to actions for change
nCreates change in the whole person, involving attitudes, behaviors, and relationships
nUsually bottom-up approach
nPolicy research/advocacy
nSpeaking out in some form to influence decisions, policies or laws
nExpert testimony
nGiving interveiws to the media
nContacts with lawmakers, govt.
nTestimony
nServing as elected official
nNot neutral
nSometimes involves unethical distortions
nSometimes persuasion over pressure
nHow do we know a program works?
nTrust us
nWe see lot’s of clients
nShow specific achievements
nWhy do programs fail
nTheory failure
nImplementation failure
nStages of program eval
nIdentify goals
nProcess evaluation
nOutcome evaluation
nSelf-repot
nKey informants
nObservation
nImpact evaluation