Fathers’ Perceptions of Their Roles and Links to Involvement with Infants
Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Ph.D.
Child Trends
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Kristin A. Moore, Ph.D.
Child Trends
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Lina Guzman, Ph.D.
Child Trends
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Jennifer Carrano, B.S.
Child Trends
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Akemi Kinukawa, M.P.H.
Child Trends
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Research for this project was made possible by the generous support of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) through Grant #R03-HD042108-01A1.
Fathers’ Perceptions of Their Roles and Links to Involvement with Infants
ABSTRACT
Little prior research has focused on fathers’ role perception.Using a sample of resident fathers in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study- Birth Cohort, this study examines how fathers’ role perception is linked to father involvement with infants in five domains: care-giving activities, paternal warmth, nurturing activities, physical care, and cognitively stimulating activities. Results indicate that there are differentials in fathers’ role perception based on socio-demographic characteristics such as race, marital status, education, SES, employment status, and gender of the child. Results of Ordinary Least Squares regression (OLS) models indicate that more positive role perceptions are generally positively associated with father-child activities in five domains. Results from this study may have important implications for the development of parenting programs intended to assist fathers in meeting societal expectations for fatherhood.
Fathers Role Perceptions Parenting Socio-demographic Correlates
Introduction
Men’s perception of their roles in families is a timely research and policy issue. Recent perceptions of the role of the father have shifted from the father as a breadwinner and the mother as a homemaker, to a more egalitarian partnership (Rotundo, 1985). This development has created new perceptions of the role of the father, one in which the father is perceived to be more invested in family relations and child care. Some scholars have also argued that this shift has resulted in a change in the “culture” of fatherhood with fathers being viewed as more expressive, intimate, and involved in the day-to-day rearing of children (Pleck, 1997; Rotundo, 1985). Understanding fathers’ experiences is important since the way they organize and understand their roles as parents affects the nature of father-child interactions and has consequences for child development (Beitel & Parke, 1998; Christmon, 1990; Goodnow & Collins, 1991).
Pertinent to the present study, only recently have researchers begun to explore how fathers’ perceptions of their roles are associated with their involvement with infants and children. To date, most investigations of men’s perceptions about their roles have not been conducted with large representative samples of diverse populations of fathers, but rather with small samples of middle-class men. Much of this research has also relied on information reported by mothers about fathers, with men’s own reports under-utilized. In addition, extant research has shed little light on whether fathers’ perceptions of their roles differ by socio-demographic characteristics, though there is evidence that fathers’ role perceptions tend to vary across groups, cultures, and families. Perceptions of the father role are further complicated by the fact that most men are not prepared to assume the range of responsibilities associated with the role (LeMasters & De Frain, 1983), and unlike the occupational role, there is little socialization for parenting. The fathering role is poorly defined and ambiguous, with literature emphasizing that it is the most burdensome role that one assumes as an adult (Pasley & Gecas, 1984). In sum, the available research on perceptions of the role of fathers still suffers a number of limitations (Marsiglio, Amato, Day, & Lamb, 2000).
In light of the shortcomings of existing research, this paper seeks to examine how men’s perceptions of their role shape their involvement as fathers, using a large and racially diverse sample of fathers of infants. Understanding these issues for fathers of infants is important given that the transition to fatherhood is a period marked with great anticipation, as well as uncertainty. The transition to fatherhood also marks an ideal opportunity to draw men more actively into parenting as opposed to playing secondary or uninvolved roles with their children (Woodsworth, Belsky, & Crnic, 1996).
Using a sample of resident fathers in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort -9-month Father Survey, we pose three research questions: (1) Are there differentials in fathers’ role perceptions according to socio-demographic characteristics?; (2) Net of fathers’ individual characteristics, mother characteristics and child-level factors, do fathers’ role perceptions influence their levels of involvement with young children?; and (3) Net of fathers’ individual characteristics, mother and child-level factors, does the influence of fathers’ role perceptions and their involvement with young children differ according to the gender of the child?
In light of the growing awareness of the role that fathers play in children’s lives, it is important to clarify how men’s perceptions of their roles may influence their involvement in families. In particular, results from this study may have important implications for the development of parenting programs intended to assist fathers in meeting societal expectations for fatherhood. Moreover, this study broadens prior work by situating the “paternal role” within a network of other relationships. This approach takes a step beyond prior research by looking at parenting roles of men from a more complex systems perspective, as suggested by Parke (1995).
Literature Review
Socio-demographic Differentials in Fathers’ Role Perceptions
Some studies suggest that a father’s role perception may be influenced by socio-demographic, societal, and cultural factors that may consequently lead to differences in involvement (Doherty, Kouneski, & Erickson, 1998; Parke, 1996). In this regard, it is necessary to recognize that variations in socio-demographic factors such as socioeconomic status, education, race, marital status, and age may modify significantly the ways in which fathers perceive their roles.
With regard to socioeconomic status, some studies suggest that both the man’s economic resources and how he perceives his influence on child well-being affect his perception of his paternal role (Esposito, 1995). For example, some research suggests that more traditional perceptions of the provider role may be more prominent among low-income fathers (Harold-Goldsmith, Radin & Eccles, 1988), and that fathers who perceive themselves as less than adequate providers, because of job loss or low earning, may tend to have reduced or negative interactions with their children (Jones, 1991; LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993).
Other studies have shown differences in father’s role perception by race and ethnicity, documenting that notions of the father role are diverse and fathering occurs within a larger ecological context that may be shaped by culturally-based factors (Burton and Snyder, 1998; Daly, 1995; Furstenberg, 1995; Sullivan, 1989). Research among a variety of families has emphasized the salience of the more traditional economic provider among African-American fathers (Bryan & Ajo, 1992; Allen & Doherty, 1996), and this research has supported the notion that role perceptions among African-American fathers are shaped to a large degree by economic concerns. For example, in one study of African-American adolescent fathers, researchers (Allen & Doherty, 1996) found that such fathers emphasized the roles of provider of economic and emotional support, holding the family together, and providing leadership to the family. However, other studies suggest that African-American and Caucasian fathers are more similar than dissimilar in participation and attitudes towards the fathering role (Summers et al., 1999).
Research has also shown that marital status and education level are associated with a man’s perceived role as father (Minton and Pasley, 1996). Married fathers are likely to be more involved with their children than fathers who are not married to the mother of their children (Popenoe, 1993). In addition, a father’s completed years of education is also an important socio-demographic correlate of father’s role perception (Elsters, Lamb, and Kimmerly, 1989). The completion of schooling signals that career development is under way and, more generally, the level of education obtained is a proxy of occupational status. Fathers with more completed years of education are often found to be more satisfied with their jobs, and job satisfaction has been found to be positively associated with positive father involvement (Daniels & Weigarten, 1982). Also, fathers with higher completed levels of education tend to be in more stable work situations than fathers with fewer years of education (Daniels & Weigarten, 1982).
Age has been shown to be a factor in fathers’ role perception since early entry into parenthood is viewed as an accelerated role transition (Parke, 2004). The transition to fatherhood may have profound effects on men who have just begun their careers, in contrast to men who have advanced to a stable occupational position (Parke, 2004). Parenting at a young age may bring about family responsibilities at a time when men are not financially, educationally, and emotionally prepared to assume them (McCluskey, Killarney & Papini, 1983). The timing of parenthood is an important organizer of the paternal role (Parke, 2004). Some research indicates that adolescent fathers are more likely to expect traditional sex roles in child care (Elsters, Lamb, and Kimmerly, 1989). In contrast, older fathers may be less tied to stereotypical paternal behavior, adopting styles more similar to those that have been considered traditionally maternal (Parke, 2004).
Fathers’ Role Perceptions and Links to Involvement with Infants
A small body of research, mostly focused on samples of middle-class men, suggests that men’s perceptions of their roles can influence the ways in which they fulfill their parenting role (Lamb, 1987; Parke, 1995). Men’s perceptions of the general role of fathers, of the abilities of men as a whole to parent, and of their own individual competencies have all been shown to be related to multiple aspects of involvement with children and their families (Parke, 2004), including father-child interactions, specifically their levels and quality of involvement (Beitel & Parke, 1998; Goodnow & Collins, 1991).
Men who identify strongly with being a father and view their paternal role as salient are more likely to be actively involved with and invested in their children’s lives than are men who have a less salient identification with their roles as fathers (Christmon, 1990; Ihinger-Tallman, Pasley & Buehler, 1993; Parke, 2000; Rane and McBride, 2000). Levy-Shiff & Israelashvili (1988), for example, found that fathers’ perceptions of fatherhood (measured using an index that explored the way fathers perceive and value fatherhood as satisfying to their social and psychological needs) were significantly associated with playful and care-giving behaviors. Similarly, Palkovitz (1984) found that how men view the role of fathers was significantly related to levels of father-infant interactions. Bonney, Kelley & Levant (1999) report similar findings for fathers of school-age children; specifically, men who viewed fathers as critical for child development perceived themselves as capable of performing child care. Perceptions have been found to be significantly predictive of involvement when either mothers or fathers reported on levels of father involvement (Parke, 2004).
Past research has also found that, when fathers believe that paternal influences are important to the development of children, they are significantly more likely to exhibit high levels of involvement in terms of interaction, responsibility, and accessibility (Bonney, Kelley, & Levant, 1999; McBride & Rane, 1997). Strong identification with the role of a father as a nurturer has been positively associated with increased father-child interaction and father responsibility (Beitel & Parke, 1998; Rane & McBride, 2000). A study by McBride et al. (2004) also found that paternal perceptions of the role of a father were the most consistent and strongest predictor of all forms of father involvement. Fathers who viewed their role as more than that of a breadwinner were more likely to be involved with their children through participation in household and child-centered tasks, monitoring behavior, responsibility, and displays of affection.
Father involvement with preschool children has also been found to be associated with gender role beliefs (Bonney, Kelley, & Levant, 1999). Men who hold less stereotypical beliefs about their role as a breadwinner and believe that women can share this role show higher levels of involvement with their children than do men who perceive themselves as the sole breadwinner in the family (Haas, 1988). Men’s belief in the innate biological ability of women to parent more effectively than men (i.e., maternal instinct) (Beitel & Parke, 1998) has also been found to be associated with father involvement, with fathers holding this belief exhibiting lower levels of involvement with their children.
Fathers who perceive themselves to be competent and capable of caring for, interacting with, and forming close relationships with their children are more likely to be highly involved than are fathers with lower opinions of their abilities to parent (Baruch & Barnett, 1986; Beitel & Parke, 1998; Haas, 1988; Pleck, 1997; Russell, 1986). The idea that father involvement increases with men’s perceived self-competence is further supported by evidence showing that levels of father involvement are higher after interventions to teach parenting skills (Cowan, 1988; Klinman, 1986; Levant & Doyle, 1983; McBride, 1990). Some studies indicate that fathers who value their roles as breadwinners, and have a perceived ability to be a successful financial provider also tend to exhibit increased father involvement (Elder, Liker, & Cross, 1984; Elder, Van Nguyen, & Caspi, 1985; Harold-Goldsmith, Radin, & Eccles, 1988; LaRossa & Reitzes, 1993). A perceived inability to financially provide for children may lead to a negative perception of one’s ability to fulfill the father role and to lower levels of father involvement (McLloyd, 1989).
Taken together, these findings suggest the need to consider fathers’ perceptions of their commitment to, investments in, and salience of various parental roles as possible correlates of paternal involvement. Such an approach would provide a useful perspective on how fathers are expected to behave toward their children in ways that reflect the value they place on fatherhood (Ihinger-Tallman, Pasley & Buehler, 1993).
Differences by Gender. Evidence suggests that fathers may be more involved with male infants as opposed to female infants for two reasons. First, fathers may feel they can identify more with the same-sex child. Second, there may be greater external pressure for fathers to serve as a role model for boys (Carlson & McLanahan, 2004). Indeed, there is some evidence to suggest that fathers tend to be more involved with boys than with girls and such involvement may result in more positive outcomes for males (Bronte-Tinkew, Moore & Carrano, 2005; Bronte-Tinkew & Moore, 2005; Lundberg & Rose, 1999). However, differences in father involvement by child gender are not always consistent and may vary by the age of the child and the type of involvement (Cooksey & Craig, 1998).