History of India: 1700s-1947
Year / Incident1611 / East India Company (EIC) establishes a factory in Masulipatnam (modern Andhra Pradesh)
1612 / Factory established in Surat
1640 / Factory established in Madras
1688 / Portuguese Bombay leased by EIC
1700 / Factory established in Calcutta
1717 / Farrukhsiyar grants ‘farman’ to EIC to carry on inland trade in Bengal with several significant concessions regarding tax concessions
1750s: Carnatic Wars
(I: 1746-48
II: 1749-54
III: 1756-63) / Carnatic Wars
These established the British East India’s Company’s supremacy amongst all the European companies in India). Around then, the Carnatic region was nominally a dependency of Hyderabad state (Mughal control), but was ruled by Nawab Dost Ali Khan
I Carnatic war was the Indian theatre of the War of Austrian Succession in Europe, which brought Britain and France into conflict, and spilled onto the Indian subcontinent as well. Indian rulers were not involved; Brits came out on top. First military adventure of Robert Clive
II Carnatic war started as a war of succession after the death of Nawab-ul-Mulk (Nawab of Hyderabad), and Brits and French saw an opportunity to consolidate influence and joined warring factions. Brits again came out on top, under Clive. Ended by Treaty of Pondicherry in 1754, recognizing the British-supported candidate becoming the Nawab
III Carnatic war was the Indian theatre of the Seven Years’ War in Europe. Spread as far as Bengal, but was decided in southern India. Brits occupied Pondicherry (French capital). Gave it back under Treaty of Paris in 1763, but only as a trading post. This signaled the end of French political ambitions in India
1757:
Battle of Plassey (Brits v/s Bengal Nawabs (Siraj-ud-Dalulah, later Mir Jafar and Mir Qasim) / Battle of Plassey (Robert Clive v/s Siraj-ud-Daulah)
When Alivardi Khan had come to power, he adopted a strict policy with the British, who had been granted favorable trade rights (including inland ones) by Farrukhsiyar in 1717. Alivardi had seen how Brits and French were waging proxy wars in Carnatic using local rulers, and wanted to prevent Bengal from that fate. Brits kept complaining that farman of 1717 was not being implemented fully, even as they continued rapacious inland trade that harmed the Nawab’s revenue (which had been going on since 1717)
In 1756, Alivardi Khan died and his grandson Siraj-ud-Daulah became Nawab of Bengal. He was suspicious of the British, and asked them to stop fortification (which the British were doing because of wars with France both in Europe and in Carnatic; French had also recently occupied Chandernagar in Bengal. This had infuriated the Nawab, who didn’t want any more of this on his land). Brits didn’t stop fortifications, and the Nawab attacked the EIC in Calcutta and ransacked the city (‘black hole’ incident)
EIC officials fled to an offshore island, and called for help from the company in Madras; under Clive, the Brits seized Calcutta, and the French fort of Chandernagar (7 years’ war was on in Europe)
French troops now joined the Nawab. In response, Robert Clive bribed Mir Jafar (head of Nawab’s army), and defeated the Nawab at Battle of Plassey. The British were now paramount rulers of Bengal, with all forthcoming Nawabs at their mercy (as early as 1759, Mir Jafar had grown disillusioned with the Brits, and started making alliances with the Dutch to repel the British; he got deposed, Mir Qasim came next)
1761:
Battle of Panipat
(Marathas v/s Afghans + Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh; Brits not involved) / Battle of Panipat
Mughal empire was under free-fall after Aurangzeb. Already during Aurangzeb’s time, Mughals and Marathas had been fighting for 27 years (1680-1707). Marathas had had rapid territorial gains (Gujarat, Malwa, Rajputana etc.). By 1737, they also controlled most of Mughal territories south of Delhi. In 1758, Nana Saheb (Balaji Baji Rao) occupied Punjab as well, and this brought the Marathas into direct confrontation with the Afghans, under Ahmad Shah Abdali. They started sending expeditionary forces to mount attacks on the small Maratha garrisons in Punjab.
War seemed imminent; both sides wanted Shuja-ud-Daulah of Awadh on their side. Shuja joined Afghans (‘Army of Islam’), and this was critical, because without his support Afghans wouldn’t have had the money to stay for as long as they did in India. Afghans laid siege to Panipat, and cut off supplies to Marathas in Delhi, who started dying of starvation. Maratha soldiers begged to go to war, and to war they did go. But the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durrani and Shuja were much stronger, and convincingly routed the Maraths
The Marathas were to remain absent from the North Indian political scene for the next decade, until another war in 1771
1763 / III Carnatic War ends in Treaty of Paris; with this, Britain ends all political ambitions of France in India. Pondicherry returned to the French, but only as a trading post
Sanyasi rebellion (Bengal/ East India): Brits imposed a ban on visits to holy places; Sanyasis organized raids on company
1764:
Battle of Buxar / Battle of Buxar (read immediately after Battle of Plassey)
Mir Qasim was installed as Nawab of Bengal after Mir Jafar’s rebellious activities. Mir Qasim also quickly saw that there was no way that British plunder of Bengal could be allowed to go unchecked. He made alliances with Nawab of Awadh (Shuja-ud-Daulah) and Mughal King Shah Alam II; however, Clive’s army convincingly beat their combined forces at Buxar.
Shah Alam II now signed the Treaty of Allahabad, granting Diwani rights to the British EIC for Bengal (modern Bengal, Orissa, Jharkhand, Bihar, and parts of UP) in return for allowing him to hold court at Allahabad; Mir Qasim was replaced. Shuja-ud-Daulah allowed to return to Awadh under a subsidiary force. This arrangement made the British virtual rulers of Bengal (the revenue-collection function had hitherto been performed by the Nawabs). Now, the Nawab had the responsibility for administration (Brits weren’t interested in direct administration yet), while the Brits enjoyed the real power (without responsibility).
=> Led to dual government in Bengal.
With the Marathas just having lost to the Afghans in the Battle of Panipat in 1761, they were to remain absent from North Indian affairs for about a decade. This gave the British a wide berth in consolidating their foothold over these parts.
1767
1767-99:
Anglo-Mysore (modern Karnataka) Wars
(I: 1767-69
II: 1780-84
III: 1789-92
IV: 1799)
(Treaties: MMS- Madras, Mangalore, Seringapatnam) / I Anglo-Mysore War (1767): Hyder Ali had become the ruler of Mysore in 1761. Mysore had enemies Marathas to the north, and Hyderabad to the east. Marathas invaded Mysore around 1767; initial plan was that Hyderabad’s Nizam will also invade and plunder, but the British invaded Hyderabad’s Northern Sarkars (to establish a land route between their holdings in Calcutta and Madras). This made the Nizam think of allying with Mysore. But Brits pre-empted and attacked Mysore.
No side won decisively; Treaty of Madras in 1769 declared ceasefire, and Brits were to help out Mysore in case of military aggression from Marathas.
II Anglo-Mysore War (1780): Going against the Treaty of Madras, the British refused to help out in Mysore-Maratha wars in 1770s, and Hyder Ali allied with the French. After Britain and France started fighting in Europe, Brits occupied French port of Mahe on Malabar coast. Hyder Ali used to get his French arms from this port. So, Hyder Ali launched an attack in response, and included Marathas and Nizam of Hyderabad.
After a long-drawn war, British losses were high, and London instructed EIC to stop the war and sign a treaty. Treaty of Mangalore was signed in 1784, and all territories won by either side given back. Brits agreed not to intervene in any future wars between Mysore, Marathas, and Hyderabad.
III Anglo-Mysore War (1789): Tipu Sultan, Hyder Ali’s son, was now the ruler; he’d been looking to find a way to go to war with the British. He attacked British ally Travancore (Kerala); Brits said okay let’s fight.
Tipu lost badly; Brits could’ve occupied Mysore but didn’t because they didn’t want consolidation of Maratha power, or to incur expenses by appointing someone directly under Brits. They let Tipu rule, but took 2 of his sons hostage so he would abide by the Treaty of Seringapatnam (1792), whereby about half of Mysore’s area was given away to Marathas and Hyderabad.
IV Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Final war; Tipu dead. Most of Mysore given away to Marathas and Nizam; core around Seringapatnam given to pre-Hyder Ali House of Wodeyars, who ‘ruled’ till 1947
1773 / Regulating Act (GG- Warren Hastings):
EIC, before and since Plassey (1757), was involved in corrupt practices whereby the company constantly veered on the verge of bankruptcy and couldn’t repay its commitments to the British government even as the ‘Nabobs’ became spectacularly wealthy. The Regulating Act was brought in for the better management of the company’s affairs in India and in Britain. The Company was to act as the Sovereign power on behalf of the Crown. Warren Hastings was the Governor in Bengal at this time (so became first GG).
Key features:
1. GG + 4: Created executive council of 4 members to assist the Governor-General of Bengal
2. Governors of Bombay and Madras presidencies made subordinate to GG of Bengal
3. Established Supreme Court in Calcutta
4. Company servants were forbidden from carrying on private trade or accept ‘presents’ from Indian rulers
1775
1775-1818:
Anglo-Maratha Wars
(I: 1775-82
II: 1803-05
III: 1817-18)
(Salbai, Bassein,
Gwalior) / I Anglo-Maratha War (1775): Around this time, the Marathas were the only major Indian power left on the subcontinent (and to some extent, Mysore). However, there was internal squabbling for succession. Raghunath Rao signed a treaty with Brits (but he wasn’t the rightful heir); this treaty led to the start of the first war; this was virtually a stalemate, ended with Treaty of Salbai whereby both powers were to follow a policy of peaceful coexistence.
II Anglo-Maratha War (1803): Nana Phadnavis died; succession struggle. One side (Raghunath Rao’s son Bajir Rao II) signed Treaty of Bassein with the Brits, in effect becoming their subsidiary. Other side, enraged, attacked the Brits and the first side. Lost. Marathas lost large part of their territory
III Anglo-Maratha War (1817): Mostly a mopping-up operation; the previous war had been stopped due to fiscal constraints. At the end of this war, all the Maratha powers had surrendered to the British, under Treaty of Gwalior. Brits now controlled all of Southern India, south of the Satluj river.
1784 / Pitt’s India Act (GG- Warren Hastings): Passed among allegations of continuing corruption and misrule even after the 1773 Regulating Act
1. GG + 3: Governor-General’s council reduced to 3 members (from 4 after the Regulating Act)
2. Modified the relationship between the EIC and the British Government
3. Made the EIC subordinate to the British government by creating the Board of Control, both to supervise the East India Company's affairs and to prevent the Company's shareholders from interfering in the governance of India. The erstwhile Court of Directors was still to exist, but would manage only commercial affairs; BoC would manage political affairs
4. Secretary of State was to be the President of the Board; +5 members
5. Bengal GG kind of made head, but some autonomy to subordinate provincial Governors
Failed because boundaries of work between BoC and CoD were poorly defined and arbitrary.
1789 / III Anglo-Mysore War (see above): Tipu had been wanting to fight the brits; attacked their allies Travancore. Lost, had to sign Treaty of Mangalore. His sons were taken hostage by Brits to ensure good behavior.
1793 / Cornwallis introduced Permanent Settlement in Bengal (demands had been raised by liberals in Britain since Regulating Act of 1773); this was the first socio-economic regulation in British India
1795 / ‘Bengal Regulation’; declared infanticide illegal.
1799 / IV Anglo-Mysore War; ended in Tipu’s defeat, and installation of puppet rulers ‘House of Wodeyars’ on the Mysore throne. Mysore was now out of the game.
Chuar uprising (Bengal/ East India (Midnapore)): Happened due to famine, enhanced land-revenue demand, and general economic distress. Wasn’t a one-off incident; incidents happened till 1816.
1803 / II Anglo-Maratha War (see above): ‘Renegade’ Baji Rao II signed Treaty of Bassein with Brits; death knell for Marathas (although there would be one more war after this)
1813 / Charter Act of 1813 (GG- Minto; retired in 1813, succeeded by Hastings (Moira): Passed in the backdrop of great economic turmoil in Europe; Napoleon had imposed the ‘Continental System’ in Europe, and British traders were facing hardships. There was clamor for revoking EIC’s monopoly on trade with India. Key features:
1. GG + 3 maintained
2. Ended the trade monopoly of EIC with India, except for tea and trade with China
3. Missionaries now allowed to go to India
4. EIC instructed to spend Rs. 1 lakh per annum to strengthen the education systems
5. Empowered local governments to impose taxes, subject to jurisdiction of SC
1815 / Atmiya Sabha: Raja Ram Mohan Roy established the Atmiya Sabha, a precursor in the socio-religious reforms in Bengal. With this, he was known as a campaigners for the rights of women. He started opposing the Sati system and Polygamy in Hindus.