1:1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Nigeria as a nation is an aggregation of several nationalities. In real terms, it is a pluralistic and multi-faceted society, both in terms of religion and composition[1]. It hasabout 450 different ethnic groupings[2]. According to 1991 officially certified census by Nigeria Population Commission, it has a population of 88.9 million with a growth rate of 2.9% per annum[3]. This makes it the most populous country in Africa and the largest concentration of black race in the world[4]. An estimated 37.7% of the populations are urban dwellers while 62.3% are rural based. The life expectancyrate is 52 years, literacy rate is 45% and the fertility rate is 5.7% while infant and maternal mortality remain high[5]. According to African Development Report of 2009, Nigeria “hada robust GDP growth rate of 6.3%, particularly in the non-oil sector”[6]. This fact is also validated by the CIA world fact book which confirms the GDP growth rate at 6.2%in 2008[7].Yet “54% of the people in Nigeria live in poverty”[8].
These indicators place it in the list of developing economies. The important issue to note here is that majority of the population are rural based and mainly farmers, which makes land a hot issue in Nigeria today[9] – especially between Hausa – Fulani who are mainly nomads and other subsistence farmers in the country, both depends on land for pastoral and planting of crops. This has also led to land conflict between natives and Fulani nomads in most part of the north. This so because the nomadic Fulani travel long distances with their cattle from their state of origin to other parts of the country in search of grazing land, only to live their permanently without any land rights from their hosts. They subsequently establish settlement and in time find it difficult to go back to their state of origin. This is made possible by the provision in the constitution which allows Nigerians to freely live in any part of the country they wish. This is specially the case in the central part of Nigeria, where there has been clashes between these groups of nomads and indigenes[10].
The diversity of languages, customs and tradition gives the country a rich cultural diversity. The predominant group in the Northern part of the country is the Hausa – Fulani group who are mainly Muslims. Other smaller minor groups are Kanuri, Nupe, Tiv , Idoma, it is also important to highlight that among these minor groups, the Idoma,Tiv,Jukun, Birom are mainly Christians living in the predominantly Muslim northern part of the country[11]. The Yorubas dominates the western part of the country and evenly split between the Christian and Muslim faith.The major ethnic group in the south-east are the Catholic and evangelical Igbo, with the Ibibio, Efik, and Ijaw (thefourth largest group) making up a sizeable part of the population.
These are mainly Christians and animists. There is more religious homogeneity in this part of the country than anywhere else in the country[12]. This could explain the reason while religious crisis is less prevalent in the region. The primary means of communication is English Language, although the three primary native languages are widely used, Igbo, Hausa and Yoruba languages.
Evidence suggests that there has been contact among the groups before the arrival of the Europeans in the 15th c, studies shows that it was intra and not inter-regional. It is also factual that problems, conflict and misunderstanding had existed in the past but peaceful method of arbitration has always been found among the various groups[13]. The abolition of slave trade in the 19thcentury and the development of mercantilism brought Nigeria and Europeans into real contact which later developed into colonialism. It began in the 15th century with arrival of the Portuguese, but the first formal threat of colonialism began in 1861 with the annexation of Lagos and the declaration of its crown colony by Britain. By 1900, the protectorate of southern Nigeria has been declared, while formal colonization was concretized with the amalgamation of Northern protectorate and colony and protectorate of southern Nigeria in 1914 with Lord Fredrick Lugard as the first British governor[14]
It is suffice to say that Nigeria is a British creation by uniting the various entities into a single country today known as Federal Republic of Nigeria. The colonial experience of Nigeria may not be the main thrust of the thesis but will be discussed as the project goes deeper where it may be relevant in unraveling the research question especially in the area of constitutional development during the colonial era. It will be vital because it shaped the political, economic, educational and religious thinking in the country.
The amalgamation brought together the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, the Colony of Lagos and protectorate of Southern Nigeria into one country. This was done to serve the interest of Britain without the consent of the various ethnic nationalities through referendum or any other consensual procedure; analysts believe that the seed of ethnic struggle for power was sown at the time[15]. What is certain was that Nigeria achieved political independence in October 1st 1960, from Britain. Since independence, there has been struggle among the various ethnic nationalities in Nigeria over natural resources and political power that has led to civil conflict between 1967-70.This war was fought between mainly Igbo dominated Biafra and Nigeria, over Three million of its citizens mainly of Igbo-extraction were killed[16]. The causes of the war are very controversial. The general consensus among historians, social commentators, and political scientists was fear of domination and struggle over economic resources[17].
Today in Nigeria, there is serious rivalry among the major ethnic groups over issues such as power and resource sharing formula; the status quo is being resisted by the minor ethnic groups especially in the Niger-delta region that produces the bulk of crude oil in the country which Nigeria depends today for most of its foreign exchange, which is affecting oil production in Nigeria. There are many conflicts brewing in the country today for control over politics, religion and revenue sharing formula just to mention but a few[18]. The struggle is in triangular form between the north and south, between the major ethnic nationalities on one hand, and the Nigerian federation against the Niger-delta who desire to control their natural resources[19].
Successive governments have tried to find solution forthe above mentioned problems all to no avail. The military which has ruled Nigeria has tried both autocratic and dictatorial methods as a solution instead Nigeria slides deeper into disunity and underdevelopment. Unfortunately, since 1960, Nigeria has experienced all kinds of political and economic strategies, which instead of giving positive result turns the country into the worst economic mismanagement and corruption. It is noteworthy to say that aforementioned ills has made the Niger Basin bastion and stronghold for ethnic militia seeking separation, self determination and control of their resource rich states[20]. They blamed their suffering and poverty on past and current leaderships of the country. No doubt that this state of affairs in one of Africa’s richest country is affecting Nigeria in its quest to achieving sustained development: economic growth, poverty alleviation and environmental sustainability.
1:2 RESEARCH QUESTION AND OBJECTIVES
Based on the above background, the overall aim of this research work is to answer the following questions:
- To what extent has ethnic identity politics affected national integration?
- What steps has government taken to address the fall out of the various ethnic identitymotivated crises in the country?
Ultimately, the objective is to examine if the series of ethnic disturbances has affected the cohesionof Nigeria as a nation. Secondly, what steps has the federal government taken to address the unintended fall out of the crises and to determine if the government has put in place mechanisms and institutions to prevent future occurrence.
As a guide to answering the overarching research question, I will document the causes of ethnic conflict in Nigeria, types of ethnic conflict and Niger delta crisis. This is important as it will help throw more light on the weightiness of ethnic issues in the country. It will also be relevant in understanding the role of the federal system in Nigeria.
1:3 METHODOLOGY
This thesis applies a number of theories relevant to ethnicity and nationalism, applying and analyzing them in a case study, and involving the core ethnic issues in Nigeria, such as, ethnic conflicts, politics, religion and revenue sharing policies among the federating units. The thesis is based on secondary sources such as government policies, international agendas and scholarly literature e.g. books, articles, reports and electronic materials. Data will include speeches,figures and papers delivered by stake holders both within and outside the country. It is important to note that this project will rely heavily on published works in form of books, journals, Newspapers, articles and some electronic materials like internet sources. The use of internet sources will be minimal but unavoidable because most of the issues are still ongoing, much has not been published. The thesis is divided into five chapters. The first section introduces the project, giving a background of the problems leading to the guiding research question. This section includes also the methodological approach this research work applies. It will also document the constitutional and historical evolution of Nigeria. This is necessary because it will attempt to unravel, if ethnic identity politics and its inherent dangers to the existence of Nigeria as a corporate entity is a historical or constitutional problem.
The second chapter attempts at documenting the genesis of ethnic politics and identity, including its modus operandi. This part will also try to see if there are functional or dysfunctional development towards the establishment and institutionalization of true nationalism in relation to ethnic politics in Nigeria. This part is important as it will help to understand the true mechanism behind ethnic crises in Nigeria.
Chapter three presents theoretical framework considered necessary to answer the guiding research questions, a number of theories will be presented and applied by using different theories by many philosophers to understand the ethnic issues in Nigeria. Basically, each theory is chosen in such a way as to address one or two areas of the project. For instance, the theory of ethnicity tries to unlock the role of ethnicity in a multicultural society like Nigeria. The causes of ethnic competition generally and Nigeria in particular will be presented, so as appreciate the working of ethnicity.This concept draws a lot of inspiration from the works ofWilkes and Okamoto in their study of ethnic related issues in South East Asian countries. This theory also helps in analyzing the role of ethnicity in the country and its supposedly negative or positive contribution. The theory of primordialism which eulogizes the supremacy of ethnicity as a positive sign of development is relevant to analyze the belief by the political North of Nigeria their inherent right to rule the country for ever.
Furthermore, the theory of nationalismwhich emphasizes the love for one’s nation and the supremacy of the state will be applied to see how it conflicts with the theory of ethnicity. The Theory of instrumentalism will try to show how political elite class hijacks apparatus of state to promote their group interest while masking different motives.It will be applied to the case study especially to the Nigeria-Biafra civil war and other relevant issues discussed in the project. Finally, the theory of social constructivism shall be used to see if Nigeria could be reconstructed to accommodate every section of the country. This theory states that no problem is insurmountable, that issues could be addressed through dialogue e.g. learning, understanding and accommodating each other.
Chapter four is the case study which will look into the causes of ethnic conflicts in Nigeria with special emphasis on the Biafran war and Niger-Delta crises. It will also highlight the various steps government has taken to address this issue. We have to bear in mind that resource control is at the heart of the crises, as a result the activities of multi-national oil companies will be scrutinized, to determine if they are part of the problem or not. This case study is very important in that,it will reveal if the various crises which have been ethnic in nature, in any form has affected citizenship and consolidation of nationalism in Nigeria. The last part of the thesis, chapter five brings the findings of the study and discusses their implications. Specifically, it concludes the study, and offers a set of recommendation based on the findings and analysis.
1:4 HISTORICAL AND CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIA
To assert that Nigeria is a British creation is not in doubt, but the latent consequences of this experiment in understanding the political and constitutional evolution of the country.The aim is an attempt to find out if the frequent ethnic tensions have roots in the early constitutional engineering of Nigeria. In 1849, a single consulate was created for Bights of Benin and Biafra in the southern tip of the country[21]. These two territories were vital post for slave trade. The ideabehindthis move according to the British was to abolish slave trade, but this reason has been rejected by economic Historians. In 1884-85 during the Berlin Conference, these two territories were declared Oil Rivers Protectorate and by 1893 had been transformed into Niger-Coast Protectorate. The area and other hinterland territories later became what are today known as Eastern Nigeria[22].
The second stage began with the occupation and annexation of Lagos in 1861-2 including its adjoining inland areas[23]. This territory in the course of transformation is today referred to as Western Nigeria. By 1888, Britain has edged out strong rivals France and Germany in the north[24]. Through its agent George Tubman Goldie, a skeletal form of administration was set up via charter granted to the Royal Niger Company. This development is significant in the sense that, it created three separate blocs each autonomous but under British umbrella[25].
It also marked the first time any kind administration was introduced, because the charter granted to RNC gave it administrative rights around areas called Northern Nigeria today. The next phase was to be crucial in the history of Nigeria, in 1898, Lord Selbourne committee was set up, the terms of reference include, firstly, to determine the mechanism for future management of three British autonomous territories and secondly, to identify the best economic model necessary for achieving Britain’s colonial ambitions. Selbourne committee recommended the amalgamation of the three territories[26].
By 1900, the amalgamation of the southern provinces took place and major change was carried out in the north by withdrawing the charter of the Royal Niger Company and the territory was declared a protectorate under colonial Secretary[27], by 1914, amalgamation of the entire country had occurred and Nigeria as a geographical entity was created. There are trajectories worth noticing after the amalgamation, the North, a land locked territory has been giving access to the sea through the maritime south, this was based on economic calculation on part of Britain, using the south as a water way to export cash crops from the north[28].On the sociological point of view, though many of these groups that make up Nigeria had had contacts in the past, there was no formal discussion to know if these different groups wish to stay together.
As at today, Nigerians are still agitating for a constitutional conference to deliberate on what form and how they wish to live and conditions for opting out. The unification brought people of different cultures, languages and religion together, at times setting the base for religious clashes. The most important challenge faced by the British was to match the administrative goal with political goals and for it to happen, there is the need to create a political arm where people could meet to discuss[29], formulate policies to serve the people. The first practical step was in 1922 with the introduction of the first constitution[30].
1:5 CONSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENTS IN PRE-COLONIAL NIGERIA
The Clifford Constitution (1922)
This constitution named after Sir Hugh Clifford introduced legislative and elective principle for the first time. This was only applicable to the south, while the North continued to be governed by the Governor who ruled through proclamations. The council was headed by the governor. It is important to note that Nigerians were not included in the executive council[31].
The Richards Constitution (1946)
The criticisms against Clifford constitution for not been representative enough led to another constitution called Richards constitution in 1946 which improved on the former one. The aim of the 1946 constitution was for proper unification, while ensuring greater participation of Nigerians in control of their own affairs. It introduced national legislative council based on appointment and selection, it has jurisdiction all over Nigeria. It also created regional council for the three regions, Houses of Assembly and House of chiefs for west and north, though the house of chiefs played advisory role[32]. The East had a unicameral structure; this could be as aresult of the republican nature of the Igbo who are dominant in the east[33]. Historically, the tribes in the east never evolved any form of centralized system of governance before colonization[34].