SOLAR PHOTOVOLTAICS FOR VERNACULAR HOUSING IN RURAL MALAYSIA: TOWARDS ENERGY SECURITY AND EQUITABILITY OF LOW-INCOME GROUPS
Nur Azfahani Ahmad1 and Hugh Byrd2
1, 2School of Architecture and Planning, The University of Auckland, New Zealand
ABSTRACT: Since the 1970s, Malaysia’s economic expansion has been powered by cheap oil and gas making it dependent on and addicted to using large amounts of fossil fuels. As a country that is primarily reliant on fossil fuels for generating power supply, Malaysia needs to take account of long-term energy security due to fossil fuel depletion and peak oil which could threaten the development of the country.
The ‘South China Sea Conflict’, concerning territorial rights to the oil and gas fields of the South China Sea, could impact further on the country’s energy security and reserves of both oil and gas. Loss of this resource could result in reduced power generation potential with the risk of interrupted power supplies and an inequitable distribution to the population.
This paper will review energy security in Malaysia, in particular electricity supply and its implications towards low-income groups in Malaysia. The paper will put forward an analysis for incorporating solar photovoltaics on roofs of vernacular housing in rural parts of Malaysia. A model is developed in order to represent the main features of a typical generic roof and its implication for efficiently collecting solar energy.
Keywords: Energy Security, Equitability, Low-Income, Solar Photovoltaic, Vernacular Housing
1. INTRODUCTION (BOLD, UPPERCASE, SIZE 11)
Since the turn of the century, energy consumption in Malaysia has been increasing rapidly and has almost doubled in 8 years (2000-2008) (see Figure 1). With the aid of subsidies for fuels and electricity from the Malaysian Government, the population has become largely dependent on cheap energy (Byrd, 2008). Ahmad (2010) had reported that the energy consumption in Malaysia had increased from 29,699ktoein 2000 to44,901ktoein 2008.
Data in 2005 (Abd. Kadir, et.al, 2010) has shown that fossil fuels have a significant role in electricity generation in Malaysia, where it is mainly generated from non-renewable resources. For example, natural gas (62%), followed by imported coal (28%), oil and petroleum (3%) and small portion of renewable resources of hydro (7%) (see Figure 2). Unfortunately, although these fossil fuels resources are accessible at the moment, they cannot be replenished and will cause a shortfall in production. Due to this Malaysia has now made a commitment to increasing renewable energy resources within its supply mix (ref) in order to mitigate an inadequate energy supply.
With an insecure supply of energy there is a risk of an inadequate supply of electricity which raises issues of an inequitable electricalpowerdistributionto the population, especially for rural people. Thus, it is important to have an alternative energy that can help to generate electricity for Malaysia in the near future. This paper will present the case for how rural areas can help to maintain energy security in Malaysia by providing renewable energy, specifically solar energy generated by photovoltaics (PVs) throughout the country especially in fulfilling domestic needs of rural developments on an equitable basis.
2. MALAYSIA’S ELECTRICITY SCENARIO
In Malaysia, the government is solely responsible for maintaining oil prices and electricity tariffs at reasonable rates. This is consistent with the requirements of the New Economy Policy (NEP) which was intended to alleviate poverty among the people and generate economic growth (Malaysia, 2006). A report made by The Energy Commission of Malaysia ( ref ) stated that, as of June 2007, Malaysia had among the lowest electricity tariffs for households in the world (7.42 US cents/1kWh).
However, since the increase in the price of petrol and diesel in the global market, the Government has gradually raised electricity prices and partially reduced subsidies (Ahmad, 2010). Despite the increase in fossil fuel prices, Malaysia's electricity consumption continues to increase every year. Teh (2011) reported that electricity consumption in Malaysia had increased rapidly since 1970 , from 2,400 GWh to99,250 GWhin 2010. He also projected that the electricity consumption will increase up to 124,677 GWh, a further 26%, by 2020.
Cheap power prices together with lifestyles changes due to urbanisation, have dramatically influenced and escalated the used of many electrical appliances in buildings, for instance air-conditioning system and satellite television (Byrd, 2008). This low-power price has stimulated the energy demand in various sectors in Malaysia, rapidly rising domestic income and reduced costs for electrical appliances. In 1979, 89% of houses in Malaysia managed to get a reliable and consistent electricity supply which was used mostly for lighting, refrigeration, and food storage. In 2009, this percentage increased substantially to 95% of total power distribution area to the whole country (Jalal, T. S. and Bodger, P., 2009). Electricity demand for the housing sector alone experienced a growth of about 4.9 percent per year due to the improved standard of living (APEC, 2006). Electricity consumption in the housing sector continues to grow and is significantly influenced by the air-conditioning market. Figure 3 a & b indicate the daily and monthly electricity load profiles for rural households. The seasonal profile is related to the hottest months between May and August when fans and air-conditioning are used more frequently.
(a) Daily Load Profile for Household in (b) Monthly Load Profile for Household
Figure 3(a) and (b). Domestic Load Profile for Rural Household in Malaysia
Source: Lau, K. Y.,et.al (2010)
3. OVERVIEW OF ENERGY SECURITY IN MALAYSIA
Energy security can be defined as the ability to meet demand of energy service needs in reliable circumstances through great period of time (CMI, 2006). Threats to energy security occur in several ways, such as the political instability, the economic problems, war, rising terrorism, accidents and natural disasters which can damage the energy supply infrastructure and creating depletion of resources (Michael, 2007).
3.1 Peak Oil
According to the US Energy Information Administration, Malaysia’s oil reserves have declined in recent years, from 771 billion barrels/day in 2000 to 703.92 billion barrels/day in 2007 (EIA, 2008). The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) has also shown that the capacities of countries owning the 21 largest oil fields throughout the globe, are facing declining production from at least 9 of their main fields (Campbell, 2002). From the 48 OPEC oil-producing countries, 33 have shown a significant decline since 2006, including Malaysia (EIA, 2006; Campbell, 2002; OPEC, 2009). Since petrol and diesel are connected to global market prices, peak oil is now a significant issue for Malaysia’s energy security.
3.2 South China Sea Oil Issue
Another issue associated with energy security in Malaysia is the recent conflict in the South China Sea. This issue has been linked with China’s territorial claim for oil and gas rich areas of the South China Sea located off the coast of Sabah and Sarawak (EIA, 2008). Figure 4 indicates the territory claimed by China (red line commencing from China) extending over Malaysia’s territory (green line commencing from Malaysia) and, coincidentally, encircling the gas and oil fields of the South China Sea.
Figure 4. Countries Claiming Ownership in South China Sea Oil Issue
Source: 0’Donnell (2009)
This issue has yet to be resolved by The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) (EIA, 2008). This may result in Malaysia further reducing the production of both oil and gas.
3.3 An Inequitable Power Distribution
With the main resources for generating electricity under threat, there is an increased risk in reduced power supplies. Under these circumstances, it is often that the rural communities face the consequences of interrupted electricity supplies. For example, Campen, Guidi Best (2000) reported that rural areas in developing countries usually have to face an unequal share of development and lack of attention from the authorities. They tend to be excluded from most of the benefits of energy services including electric power supply. Due to this, inequality of electric power distribution arise and cause power interruption and blackouts in rural communities.
Hussain (2005) and Byrd (2010) have reported on the issues of safety, the emergence of crime, disruption of traffic, health disorder and loss of communication in the event of blackouts. Load shedding (turning electricity off in one area in order to keep an adequate supply in another) requires complex decisions in order to prioritise the electricity supply to communities. Table 3 indicates a history of the major electricity blackouts that have been faced by Malaysia and their significant cost implications. It is the risk of financial loss that tends to result in poorer communities carrying the burden of load shedding.
Table 3. Malaysia Power Disruption
Date / Period / Loss (RM)(Million) / Area Affected
29/9/1992 / 2 days / 220 / 9 from 13 states in Malaysia
3/8/1996 / 14 hours / 123 / The whole of Peninsular Malaysia
10/8/1996 / 16 hours / Undisclosed / Southern part of Peninsular Malaysia
4/9/2003 / 5 hours / 13.8 / Malaysia's northern peninsular
13/1/2005 / 2 hours / Undisclosed / Southern part of Peninsular Malaysia
Source: Adapted from Hussain, K.S.K. (2005)
As the risk of inadequate electricity production increases due to reduced resources for generation, an equitable distribution of electricity is under threat. Malaysia has one of the highest Gini Coefficients (difference between the richest 10% and poorest 10%) outside Latin American and sub-Saharan countries (Byrd, 2010), which indicates that Malaysia already has significant inequality. As fuel and electricity prices increase lower income groups will become more vulnerable. The only option is to introduce an alternative, decentralised power supply. With a significant amount of sunshine, Malaysia has significant potential to exploit solar energy, in particular PVs to generate electricity.
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4 SOLAR ENERGY POTENTIAL
Malaysia is located in an Equatorial region and receives abundant solar radiation every day, with the average irradiance per year of 1643 kWh/m2. This is about 50% more that Germany where PVs have been implemented across the residential sector. The potential of implementing solar energy technology in Malaysia in the near future is even greater (Chua, S.C., et.al, 2010).
4.1 PV Potential
This section explores the potential of photovoltaics mounted on roof surfaces of rural houses in Malaysia to provide electricity for use by households and for exporting to the national grid. Byrd (2008) indicated that PVs mounted on roofs of houses in Malaysia could generate about 25% of current electricity demand which is a significant proportion of the generation mix for Malaysia, especially in meeting electric demands of low-income groups. However, the analysis below provides the basis of a more accurate assessment.
Figure 5 indicates the monthly solar radiation for the rural areas in Malaysia which is within the range of 4.8 kWh/m2 to 6.1 kWh/m2 per day (Lau, K. Y, et. al, 2010). Figure 6 illustrates the typical diurnal variation in solar radiation during the day (Ibrahim, M., et.al, 2009). In order to optimise the collection of solar energy the collection area, orientation and tilt need to be analysed. These criteria are specific to house types and roof geometry.
4.2 The Solar Potential of Roofs
This section is divided into two sub-sections, which consists of (a) the basic analysis of typical roof shape in vernacular houses in rural areas in Peninsular Malaysia, and (b) the potential electricity generated by PVs on the roofs.
a. Typical Roof Shapes and areas
Malaysia’s vernacular houses are mainly built with gabled roofs, in order to adapt to the climatic elements (Fee, C.V, et al, 2005). Yuan (1991) has identified the distinctive features of roof shapes for typical rural dwellers in Malaysia and this is shown in Figure 7.
The two main features that could limit the potential of the roofs to collect solar energy are i) the complexity of the roof form can limit the number of solar panels (particularly in the case with the ‘selang addition’) and ii) overshadowing by a ‘parallel addition’.
For practical purposes, PV arrays would not cover the whole of a roof. Space is required for maintenance of both the roofs and the panels. Also long runs of interconnected arrays are more cost-effective than individual panels located in a variety of positions. However, since these house types have an average roof area of typically 298m2 (Yuan, 1991) and a significant area is rectilinear, the collection area is more determined by the orientation and inclination of the roofs than their geometry.
b. Orientation and Pitch of Roofs
Typically, roof pitches in Malaysia are angled at 30° or less, especially for long roof houses (Fee, C.V, et al, 2005; Elhassan, Z.A.M et al (2011; Yuan, 1991).
A solar angle inclination chart is used to evaluate the efficiency of solar panel on the roof on different orientations (See Figure 8).
Figure 8. Angle of solar panel inclination for houses in Malaysia
Source: Fadzil, S.F.S and Byrd, H (2010
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Figure 8 indicates that for all orientations of a roof and with a pitch of less than 30o the efficiency of the solar panels will be 95% or more of the optimum, though panels facing east or west tend to have slightly higher efficiency.
5. ENERGY AVAILABLE FROM ROOFS
Having established the daily solar radiation available (figure 6) and that almost all of the traditional roof types are capable of collecting solar energy with at least a 95% efficiency, daily electricity generation of a rural household can be estimated and compared with typical daily electricity load (Figure 3a). For the purposes of this calculation, it has been assumed that PVs have a conversion efficiency of 15%, a tilt and orientation loss of 5%, cable and inverter losses of 5% and losses due to dirt and shading of a further 5%. This gives an overall solar energy to electricity conversion efficiency of 12.9%
5.1 Comparison of different PV areas.
The electricity generated is based on different roof areas. The first, figure 9 assumes that 60% of the average roof area can be covered by PVs (178m2). This is a practical maximum given the constraints of roof geometry and maintenance described in 4.2a above. A PV area of 178m2 is unlikely to be economical and so the second roof area considered is 1/3rd of this (57m2). Lastly, a small area of 28.5m2 is considered.