PSY 1 - APPROACHES in PSYCHOLOGY - Web Edition

PSY 1 - APPROACHES IN PSYCHOLOGY

PREPARATION & REVISION

The aim of this handbook is to help you prepare and revise for the unit named PSY1 in your A Level course in Psychology. It is not intended to take the place of your class work nor of the full textbook covering the course, but it should help you revise and prepare for the examination.

Contents

PSY 1 - WHAT YOU NEED TO STUDY02

UNDERSTANDING HOW THE QUESTIONS

ARE STRUCTURED and HOW TO ANSWER THEM03

THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH

ASSUMPTIONS 04

STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES 05

THERAPY - SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION06

THERAPY - AVERSION THERAPY07

THEORY - SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF AGGRESSION08

THE BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

ASSUMPTIONS 09

STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES 10

THERAPY - PSYCHOSURGERY11

THERAPY - CHEMOTHERAPY12

THEORY - SELYE’S GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME13

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

ASSUMPTIONS14

STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES 15

THERAPY - THE TALKING CURE16

THERAPY - DREAM ANALYSIS17

THEORY - THEORY OF PERSONALITY18

THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

ASSUMPTIONS19

STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES20

THERAPY - RATIONAL EMOTIVE THERAPY21

THERAPY - COGNITIVE BEHAVIOURAL THERAPY22

THEORY - ATTRIBUTION THEORY23

COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE APPROACHES24

PSY 1 - WHAT YOU NEED TO STUDY

In this unit, we will be studying four major approaches in Psychology:

1)The BIOLOGICALapproach

2)The BEHAVIOURIST approach

3)The PSYCHODYNAMIC approach

4)The COGNITIVE approach

You will learn how to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the ASSUMPTIONS of each approach – for example, the biological approach assumes that behaviour has a biological/physical/physiological case. You will learn how each approach has been applied to a THEORY and a THERAPY.

You will learn to ASSESS CRITICALLY each approach in terms of its STRENGTHS and WEAKNESSES. And you will learn to recognise SIMILARITIES and DIFFERENCES between the approaches.

In PSY1, you will be expected to be able to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of theories and therapies for each approach as outlined in the table below:

THEORY / APPROACH / THERAPY
Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome / BIOLOGICAL / Psychosurgery or chemotherapy
Social Learning Theory of Aggression / BEHAVIOURIST / Aversion Therapy or Systematic Desensitisation
Freud’s theory of personality development / PSYCHODYNAMIC / Dream analysis or Free Association
Attribution theory / COGNITIVE / Cognitive BehaviouralTherapy or Rational Emotive Therapy

Therefore, for the examination you must be able to:

Outline the main assumptions of each approach.

Describe how each approach can be applied in one form of therapy.

Describe how each approach can be applied to one theory.

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of each approach.

Compare and contrast the four approaches in terms of similarities and/or differences.

UNDERSTANDING HOW THE QUESTIONS

ARE STRUCTURED and HOW TO ANSWER THEM

There are three kinds of questions in the examination, and the first word or words of each question make it clear what is required in your answer.

The questions are

1. Outline/Describe the main assumptions of the …approach. (12)

2. Outline/Describe how the ... approach has been applied in …theory. (12)

3. Outline/Describehow the …approach has been applied in …therapy. (12)

4. Evaluate/Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the… approach. (12)

5. Compare and contrast the …and … approachin terms of similarities and differences. (12)

The approaches you are required to describe, evaluate, and compare and contrast will be named.The therapy and theory you are asked to describe will be named.

Generally, describe and explain 3 or 4 fundamental assumptions.

Generally, describe and explain 2 strengths and 2 weaknesses.

Generally, describe and explain 2 similarities and 2 differences about the approach you are asked to compare and contrast.

Be strict and sensible about your timing.

Don’t write brilliant answers for three questions, leaving little or no time

for the remaining 2 questions.

Don’t try to memorise answers to reproduce in the examination. It is far better to show you really understand the psychologyand show this understanding in the examination.

THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH

ASSUMPTIONS

An examination essential

Outline the main assumptions of the behaviourist approach.

The behaviourist approach assumes that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is learned through the processes of classical and operant conditioning. In other words, we learn by interacting with the world around us, especially by the ways our environment operates on us.

Classical conditioning is ‘learning through association’. It was first proposed by IvanPavlov who observed that his laboratory dogs had learned to salivate to the sound of the footsteps of the man who fed them. They had learned to associate the footsteps with food. Later, Pavlov conditioned the dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell that he rang before he gave them their food.

The individual learns to associate a neutral stimulus with an automatic reflex response such as fear or pleasure. For example, Watson & Raynor (1920)conditioned Little Albert to associate the sight of a white rat, or anything similar, with a fear response.In other words, Albert had been conditioned to be frightened of something he had previously found non-threatening, and even attractive. In conditioning terms, the loud noise Albert heard was the UCS (unconditioned stimulus), his fear response of crying was the UCR (unconditioned response), the white rat was the CS (conditioned stimulus) and his fear of the white rat was the CR (conditioned response).

Operant conditioning is ‘learning through the consequences of behaviour’. If a behaviour is rewarded (reinforced) then it will be maintained or increased. If it is punished, it will weaken and may become extinguished. For example, if we are praised for polite behaviour when we are young, we will learn that polite behaviour brings rewards, and we will behave politely without thinking about it.B. F. Skinner investigated operant conditioning using pigeons and rats in Skinner boxes and discovered many of the principles of operant conditioning applied to human beings.

Again, operant conditioning can explain abnormal behaviour. For example, adolescents who are ridiculed (punished) for being fat may stop eating to reduce their weight and go on to develop an eating disorder.

Abnormal behaviour can be unlearned using the same conditioning principles. For example, Watson & Rayner (1920) proposed to rid Little Albert of his fears by pairing a reward (e.g. a sweet) with the sight of a rat until his fear was extinguished. Albert was adopted from the institution where he was being raised and nothing is known of him since. There is a detailed account of the experiment in Wikipedia.

THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH

STRENGTHS & WEAKNESSES

An examination essential

Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the behaviourist approach.

One of the main strengths of the behaviourist approach is that it focuses only on behaviour that can be observed and manipulated. Therefore, this approach has proved very useful in experiments under laboratory conditions where behaviour can be observed and manipulated, especially in relation to the IV (independent variable) and the DV (dependent variable). The behaviourist principles of learning have been, and continue to be, tested in the laboratory where learning can be objectively measured.

The behaviourist approach concentrates on the ‘here and now’ rather than exploring a person’s past or their medical history. This is an advantage because many people do not know the past causes for their abnormal behaviour. And for many people getting rid of undesirable behaviour may be more important than understanding the causes of such behaviour. For example, a client with an irrational compulsion to wash his hands unnecessarily many times every day may be satisfied by simply ridding himself of the abnormal behaviour.

On the other hand, if an approach cannot treat the underlying causes of the behaviour, it is likely the behaviour will return after a period of time. Behavioural treatments such as Systematic Desensitisation and Token Economies are effective for certain disorders, such as obsessive-compulsive disorders and phobias. However, they are not so effective for more serious disorders, such as schizophrenia.

The behaviourist approach has been criticized for suggesting that most human behaviour is mechanical, and that human behaviour is simply the product of stimulus-response behaviours. This seems to be a very reductionist attitude.

In particular, the approach ignores human beings’ complex thought processes (cognition) and emotions. In Social Learning Theory, Bandura (1977) has revealed that cognitive factors cannot be ignored if learning is to be understood. Bandura has pointed out that it is knowing, having the information, that certain behaviours will be rewarded or punished that shapes behaviour just as much as the rewards or punishments themselves. For example, Little Johnny knows he will be smacked for touching the electric fire, and that is why he does not touch it.

In addition, the principles of behaviourism have been tested mainly on animals. Such findings may not apply totally to human behaviour, which is much more complex.

Finally, ethical questions have been raised over some behavioural treatments which have been used without the consent of the client, and in treatments such as Aversion Therapy where pain and discomfort are deliberately used to change the behaviour of the client.

A BEHAVIOURIST THERAPY

An examination essential

Describe how the behaviourist approach has been applied in one form of therapy in psychology.

SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION

According to classical conditioning theory, a phobia is an automatic reflex acquired as a response to a non-dangerous stimulus. For example, Little Albert (Watson & Rayner, 1920) acquired his fear of rats when he ‘learned’ to associate the sight of a white rat with the fright of a hammer crashing down on a steel bar just behind his head. After only seven trials, Albert became frightened and backed away from the white rat every time he saw it.

Behaviour therapy could have been used to counter Albert’s conditioning by exposing him to the phobic stimulus (the white rat) while pairing the sight of the white rat with something pleasant (sweets, hugs, cuddles) until the fear response was reduced and extinguished.

During the therapy known as Systematic Desensitisation (SD), the patient is trained to substitute a relaxation response for the fear response in the presence of the phobic stimulus. Since this is unlikely to occur naturally, behaviour therapy can help by exposing phobics to their fears in a safe and controlled setting.

Systematic Desensitisation was devised and developed by Wolpe (1958) as a therapy to help clients overcome their phobias, i.e. an irrational fear of something that is not genuinely dangerous – for example, Little Miss Muffett and her fear of spiders.

Systematic Desensitisation involves three steps:

First, the patient is trained to relax completely. This may be with the help of relaxation techniques, deep muscle relaxation, or tranquillisers.

Second, the patient draws up a list of his most frightening scenarios, from least frightening to most frightening. This is called his fear hierarchy.

Third, the patient will progress through the scenarios, beginning with the least frightening, learned to stay as relaxed as he can. Sometimes the patient will be asked to imagine these frightening situations, but the therapy is said to be more effective if the situation is real. For example, we might ask Miss Muffett to touch a dead spider rather than imagine touching it.

Simple or specific phobias are quite effectively treated with behaviour therapy. Wolpe (1988) claims that “80 to 90 per cent of patients are either apparently cured or much improved after an average of twenty-five to thirty sessions.” SD is not so successful with more serious disorders, such as schizophrenia.

A BEHAVIOURIST THERAPY

AVERSION THERAPY

An examination essential

Describe how the behaviourist approach has been applied in one form of therapy in psychology, e.g. Aversion Therapy

Aversion therapy is a form of psychological therapy that uses conditioning procedures to break the association between undesirable behaviour and a pleasant sensation. The patient is exposed to the undesirable stimulus while at the same time being subjected to some form of discomfort. This conditioning is aimed at causing the patient to associate the undesirable stimulus with unpleasant sensations.

Aversion therapy used to treat an alcoholic would follow this procedure:

the patient is given a drug that makes him feel very sick. The drug is the unconditioned stimulus and the sickness is the unconditioned response.

the patient is then given alcohol and the drug at the same time, so alcohol and feeling sick are paired together.

the pairing of alcohol and the drug is repeated until the patient associates alcohol with feeling very sick. The alcohol is now the conditioned stimulus, and feeling sick is the conditioned response. If the conditioning is successful, the patent will no longer be able to drink alcohol.

Aversion therapy can take many forms. For example, a child who bites his nails may have them painted with an unpleasant substance to discourage biting them. A violent person might be shown images of violent crime while being given electric shocks. In this way, new behaviour can be ‘learned’ to replace bad habits, undesirable behaviour, addictions and obsessions.

The long-term effectiveness of aversion therapy is questionable. The therapy may be successful at first but when patients are out of sight of the therapist, and the drugs or electric shocks are no longer used, patients may return to the original undesirable behaviour. In other words, the association between the undesirable behaviour and the unpleasant association is extinguished.

Ethical questions have been raised concerning the use of aversion therapy, and indeed all therapies that use conditioning procedures to change behaviour. First, although the undesirable behaviour may be changed, the therapy may not reach the underlying causes of the behaviour, and, therefore, undesirable behaviour is some form or other, is likely to emerge later. Second, forced aversion therapy is used on children and teenagers in some countries, which raises the issue of consent. And third, aversion therapy deliberately causes pain and distress in some patients, which does not seem compatible with the duty of psychologists to at least minimise the risk of pain and harm.
THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF AGGRESSION

An examination essential

Describe how the behaviourist approach has been applied to one theory in psychology.

The behaviourist approach assumes that all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, is learned through the processes of classical and operant conditioning. In other words, we learn by interacting with the world around us, especially by the ways our environment operates on us. In classical conditioning we ‘learn by association’ while in operant conditioning we ‘learn through the consequences of our behaviour’.

Social Learning Theory extends this approach by suggesting that we learn not only by direct experience but also by observational experience. In other words, a boy who sees other boys rewarded for polite behaviour is likely to behave politely in order to gain the same rewards.

Social Learning Theory has been used to explain aggression, particularly why children may behave aggressively. According to social learning principles, children learn aggression by observing people behaving aggressively and imitating their behaviour. People who are observed are called models because they are modelling the behaviour the children imitate. Children are likely to copy the behaviour of people they see as similar to themselves, adults they admire, powerful people, or people who are rewarded for their aggression (indirect/vicarious reinforcement). The child is likely to continuing imitating the behaviour if this brings reinforcement, rewards in any form.

Albert Bandura et al. (1967) conducted a series of experiments to study how children learned to behave aggressively. In Bandura’s basic procedure, children saw an adult behave aggressively, both verbally and physically, towards a large inflatable doll, called a Bobo doll. The children then had the chance to play with a range of toys, including a Bobo doll, and observers assessed their behaviour.The observers found that children who saw an aggressive model reproduced more of the aggressive acts than children who saw a non-aggressive model. Another finding was that the children showed significantly more imitation of a same-sex model, and boys performed more acts of aggression than girls.

Bandura noted that boys will imitate aggressive behaviour more readily than girls, and that both sexes will copy the behaviour of adults than that of children. Bandura’s research confirmed his belief that children learn from their social environment, which provides models of behaviour as well as expectations of appropriate behaviour. The key processes of social learning are observation, imitation and reinforcement.

Bandura’s research has been criticised. Firstly, the children saw aggression towards an inflatable doll, not towards another human being, so perhaps the children did not display ‘real’ aggression. Secondly, the laboratory procedure may lack ecological validity because the situation does not occur in real-life. Thirdly, it’s ethically questionable if we should be ‘teaching’ children to behave aggressively.