The Hebrews: a New View of God and the Individual

From Chapter 2: The Hebrews: A New View of God and the Individual 7

CHAPTER 2

The Hebrews: A New View of God and the Individual

OVERVIEW

Following the Focus Questions, Chapter 2 begins with a summary of Hebrew history from the migration from Mesopotamia up to the Roman conquest. Then it examines major themes of the Hebrew religion, awareness of the individual, and worldview. The unique character of the Hebrew conception of God, human freedom, law, history, and justice are discussed, and the role of the prophets is explained. Finally, the influence, through Christianity, of Hebrew religious ideas on Western civilization is emphasized.

This chapter is more unified and thus easier for students to understand than the previous chapter. You will probably want them to have a more or less detailed concept of the main chronological events of Hebrew history. The main focus of the chapter is, of course, on the striking differences between the religious doctrines of the Hebrews and those of their Near Eastern contemporaries, as well as on the significance of those ideas for later civilization in the West. Note that the Hebrews are variously referred to as Israelites or Jews; all these terms refer to the same people, but it is surprising to find that students are often not aware of this. (The lesson, once again, is that we must beware of assuming that students know things that seem obvious to us. Foreign students in particular, though not exclusively, need definitions of even common historical terms.)

WHAT THE STUDENTS SHOULD KNOW

After students have read and studied Chapter 2 in the textbook, they should be able to:

1.Trace the general history of the ancient Hebrews from the time of the patriarchs to the second century b.c.

2.Understand the debates concerning the historicity of the Exodus, the fulcrum of Jewish history.

3.Understand and discuss the history of the Old Testament and grasp the significance of the Tanak.

4.Describe the Hebrews’ concept of Yahweh, noting both how it differed from the beliefs of other ancient peoples and how it factored into their cosmology.

5.Discuss the Hebrews’ emphasis on the dignity and moral autonomy of the individual, noting the implications of human free will in a context of divine omniscience.

6.Define the Covenant, explain its relationship to the Law, and describe the ethical obligations both imposed on the Hebrews.

7.Explain the place of women in Jewish society, acknowledging the societal limitations in their roles, as well as the recognition of them as persons, not chattel.

8.Explain the Hebrews’ view of the nature and importance of history.

9.Describe the role of the prophets, including their formulation of principles of social justice. In this connection, call students’ attention to the passage from Isaiah at the end of the chapter. It would also make a good essay subject or discussion topic.

10.Explain the significance of the Hebrew religion for Western civilization and how Hebrew doctrines were transmitted through Christianity.

LECTURE POSSIBILITIES

1.Enliven your historical sketch of the rise of the Hebrews by comparing historical evidence with incidents from the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) to point up the many varieties of information and uses of the Old Testament. For example, you might include an account of the Phoenician influence, with its sinister child sacrifice, that spread in Israel through King Ahab’s Phoenician wife, Jezebel, and compare it with what modern scholarship tells about the Phoenicians of the era.

2.To balance the deplorable Jezebel, discuss some famous Hebrew women such as Judith, Ruth, and Esther and their roles in Jewish society.

3.Point out the unique emphasis of the Hebrew religion on the dignity and free will of each human being and discuss this as a key element in Western civilization. Emphasize that the Hebrew concept of love of God and obedience to his laws was not intended to be a curtailment of human freedom and autonomy; rather, this God-centered outlook, many have argued, made true moral freedom possible. (Students sometimes have trouble with this idea because they conceive freedom as doing whatever they like and not obeying anyone.)

4.Look up some of the recent biblical archaeological discoveries, such as the new findings about the Tunnel of Hezekiah, and discuss their place in Hebrew history. (The reason for the tunnel during the siege of Jerusalem by the Assyrians will remind the class of developments covered in the previous chapter.)

5.Discuss the importance of history for the Hebrews. For them, history was the record of God’s actions in the world, and in particular God’s dealings with the Hebrews as the chosen people. As such it was full of meaning. Contrast this with the pessimistic perspective of many other cultures, which saw history as an endless cycle of events repeating themselves to no purpose. The Hebrew view was of meaningful progress through time to a happy fulfillment. Also emphasize the degree to which history, for the ancient Hebrew authors, did not entail the same source-bound, fact-checked narration that guides historians today.

TOPICS FOR CLASS DISCUSSION

1.What elements would a Hebrew have considered most objectionable in Mesopotamian and Egyptian religion? Give reasons for your choices.

2.How would you describe the idea of human nature as reflected in the Hebrew religion? Does this view differ essentially from that of the other cultures you have studied?

3.Compare ancient Hebrew notions of justice with those current in modern American society. Are there any parallels between the two?

4.The chapter states that Hebrew traditions, particularly those represented in the Bible, have had a great impact on Western civilization. Ask students to think of any biblical phrases, references, or standards that have passed into our language and thought. What does it mean to call a woman a “Jezebel” or to say that someone is as old as Methuselah? (You might put a list of such references on the board the day before the discussion and have students look them up and come up with some other examples.)

5.The textbook refers to the controversy over the Exodus, which could make a good topic for a class discussion. Some historians not only question its date, which is a long-standing problem, but argue that it never occurred at all. Call attention to the chapter discussion of this point, and have the students investigate the most recent work on the question. Refer them to the website to learn about the work of Italian archaeologist Professor Emmanuel Anati and his book, The Riddle of Mount Sinai. (The photographs on the site are stunning; well worth a visit by students even if you do not choose to use the topic for discussion purposes.)

GROUP LEARNING PROJECTS

1.Raise the question of what Hebrew religious ideas and customs would have seemed peculiar, threatening, or offensive to other peoples of the ancient Near East. Divide the class into groups and ask each group to come up with three such issues; then compare the findings of the various groups. Broaden the discussion by asking the groups to list any reasons they may have heard for anti-Jewish sentiment in present-day America. Do they think such sentiment exists, and if so, are the reasons given for it primarily religious, cultural, economic, political, or racial? The point of this exercise is to make the students realize that the attacks on Jews they will encounter throughout the course, including accounts of persecution by the pre-Christian Romans, have historically been fueled by a variety of motives, including fear of the unknown. You might explain that racial anti-Semitism is a phenomenon of modern times that cannot be read backward into history but deserves careful study in the modern history course.

2.Have half of the students write paragraphs discussing ways in which American ethics and culture incorporate the principles of Hebrew morality and ethics described in the textbook chapter. Have the other half write about ways in which our culture does not embody, or contradicts, Hebrew ethical principles. Ask both groups of students to address specific points mentioned in the chapter and cite specific examples to support their arguments. Have an informal debate on how biblically based contemporary American morality and its evolution to meet current mores actually is. Put on the board ways in which the class thinks we accept biblical standards and ways in which we seem to differ.

3.Since biblical archaeology is a thriving field in which discoveries are continually being made, have groups choose topics such as the site of Abraham’s hometown of Ur, evidence for the Hebrews in Egypt, where Sodom and Gomorrah were, and the location of Mount Sinai. Have students locate websites dealing with the topics chosen, pool their information, and make a brief report to the class. Then project some of those websites onto the screen in front of the class and discuss the information found for credibility and sourcing.

THINKING BEYOND THE FACTS

1.Read excerpts from the law code of Hammurabi and the Hebrew book of Deuteronomy. How would you define the concept of justice reflected in each?

2.One historian has characterized Hebrew thought as being focused on “the infinite horizon,” in contrast with the more circumscribed perspective of other Near Eastern peoples. Can you find support for this idea of an enlarged worldview in what you have learned about the Hebrews? What areas of their culture would or would not justify this characterization?

3.Some people claim that the Psalms contain some of the greatest poetry ever written. Read selections and list the main themes you find expressed. Then find an alternate translation and repeat the process. How do the Psalms compare when read from different translations? Finally, choose two poems in the English language that deal with some of the same themes and compare the ways in which each author treats them.

4.In Daniel Boorstin’s The Creators, he argues, “What people thought about creation would signal their ways of tolerating and valuing the new.... The West’s unique answer is a Creator-God worshipped by a Creator-Man.” This implies that human creativity stems from the concept that man was created in the image of God and is therefore like him in being able to create. Analyze this argument.

FILM BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.Jerusalem: Center of Many Worlds. 29 min. Color. Atlantis Productions, Inc.

2.Ancient Palestine. 14 min. Color. Coronet International Films.

3.Israel: A Search for Faith. 26 min. Color. Pyramid Films, Inc.

4.The Bible as Literature: Part I—Saga and Story in the Old Testament. 29 min. Color. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

5.The Bible as Literature: Part II—History, Poetry, and Drama in the Old Testament. 24 min. Color. Encyclopaedia Britannica.

6.Israel. 25 min. Color. National Geographic Films.

7.Jerusalem: Within These Walls. 59 min. Color. National Geographic Films.

8.Chronicles and Kings. 52 min. Color. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.