EU FPV Thematic Network: The Social Problem and Societal Problematisation
of Men and Masculinities
ESTONIA NATIONAL REPORT ON RESEARCH ON MEN’S PRACTICES WORKPACKAGE 1
Voldemar Kolga
1. Key points
- There are surveys on work, home, health, social exclusion and violence in Estonia. All surveys are representative (thousands respondents). These surveys have recently conducted, in late 90s. Research has been done with significant foreign assistance, UNDP and Scandinavian countries. The only exception are studies done by Institute of International and Social Studies (former part of the Estonian Academy of Science, now Tallinn Pedagogical University). There are available also English language publications.
- Relatively good is work and health coverage, and bad social exclusion by studies. Social exclusion seem a little bit ambiguous, it is not clear what to include into this class.
- Problem of men`s gendering or masculinities is not directly presented in studies. Gender issues are not top priority in society (crime, poverty, unemployment). However, all these top problem have strong gender laden, however gender in these top problems is generally ignored.
- Social problems is manifesting in short life-expectancy; after Russia Estonia has the largest difference in life expectancy between men and women. This big difference is result of men´s health problem, but what are neglected by men ´thanks ´ to stereotypical view on men`s roles, however it is need to study connections between stereotypes and real conduct, styles of life.
- List of men`s problem in Estonia.
a)work overload, intensivity, to earn more money;
b)neglected health problems (better to die, than to go physician);
c)less educated, fewer classes
d)changes in marital behavior, traditional marriage is changing (disappearing); fathers rights problem .
2. Introduction to country.
Estonia is a country in the eastern part of Europe on the Baltic Sea. Although its area is small (45.2 thousand sq. km) Estonia is larger than such European countries like The Netherlands or Belgium. However, the population density is really small if to compare with the European countries. As of 1 January 1998 the population number of Estonia was 1.454 million.
During the past ten years, Estonia has – like the other post-socialist countries in East and Central Europe – experienced major changes. In 1991 the country gained its independence from the collapsing Soviet Union; in 1992 the national currency – kroon – was introduced and in 1994 Russian Army left the country, and Estonia began the independent life. So, we do own deeds by own wishes and will less than 10 years. It gave possibility to `explain` all problems by past, by the Soviet occupation, and it is very natural mode to explain our shortages.
From the very beginning Estonian strategic future plan was to become the member as European Union and NATO. It is to build up the democratic state and welfare society. And Estonia has done the first steps on this hard way. So, Estonia is became successful EU negotiator among Hungary, Czech Republic, Poland, Slovenia, and Cypros.
The methodological approach to the social problem of men.
There are different approaches to determine the object of analyses – men´s practices with a variety of social problems, including home and work, exclusion, violence and health. The best way from my point of view is deductive approach. In this case it means that the social problem of men will be deduced from more general or larger systems of explanations.
The main threat of deduction approach is to choose very distant or even unappropriate system of explanations. For instance, to explain the process of this report writing by chemistry of my brain or the modern social problem of men may be explained by history of Estonia or geography. For example, high suicide rate among men in Estonia may be referred to Ugro-Finnic nature or to the North (darkness, long nights) as the source of depression. The both factors may have influence to suicide rate, however really they are constant variables (alike Estonians background), and because of it they lack explanation power in case of suicide rate changes.
In this context in this report the reference or explanation system will the human development index (HDI). HDI is general and more or less objective measure of quality of human resources. HDI is calculated every year for every country by United Nations Developmental Programme (UNDP), and countries are ranked on the basis of this index. The idea is to figure out the dependence and content of the social problem of men from more general, but measurable human characteristic of country. It is expected positive correlation between extent of the social problem of men and HDI.
HDI`s components are per capita gross domestic product (GDP), life expectancy at birth and adult literacy, together with the enrollment ratio data of those in society receiving education.
The attempt to consider HDI as the independent variable of the social problem of men.
It is symptomatic that Estonia likes to compare itself with Nordic countries in Estonian UNDP report (1999).
Table 1
Human development rankings for the Baltics and Nordic countries,
1996 – 1999 (UNDP, 1999)
1996 / 1997 / 1998 / 1999Estonia / 68 / 71 / 76 / 54
Lithuania / 81 / 76 / 78 / 62
Latvia / 55 / 92 / 91 / 74
Iceland / 8 / 5 / 5 / 9
Norway / 5 / 3 / 3 / 2
Sweden / 9 / 10 / 10 / 6
Finland / 6 / 8 / 6 / 13
Denmark / 17 / 18 / 18 / 15
Notice: the index published in 1999 is based on the data of 1997.
Estonia´s HDI indicates that we belong to the group of countries with avarage human development. Estonia`s relatively large leap (22 places) is based on a significant change especially of per capita GDP adjusted according to purchasing power parity. The economy is the key factor of success.
Table 2
HDI component indices in the Baltic and Nordic countries in the 1999 report according to 1997 statistical indicators.
Life expectancy / Education Index / GDP Index / HDIEstonia / 0.73 / 0.93 / 0.66 / 0.773
Lithuania / 0.75 / 0.91 / 0.62 / 0.761
Latvia / 0.72 / 0.90 / 0.61 / 0.744
Iceland / 0.90 / 0.95 / 0.90 / 0.919
Norway / 0.89 / 0.98 / 0.92 / 0.927
Sweden / 0.89 / 0.99 / 0.88 / 0.923
Finland / 0.86 / 0.99 / 0.89 / 0.913
Denmark / 0.84 / 0.96 / 0.91 / 0.905
Estonia of our expectations / 0.76 / 0.94 / 0.71 / 0.803
Authors of the Estonian UNDP Report (1999) ask how to increase the Estonian HDI to the coveted 0.8, at which point a high human development boundary lies (currently 45 countries out of 174)? And the answer: no possibility for Estonia to significantly increase its education index, maximum increase may be 0.01.
The new UNDP (2000) report was just presented in Paris, and there are really good news for Estonia: we are now in group of high human development.
Tabel 3
UNDP HDI rankings 2000 (Postimees, June 29, 1999)
HDI / Life expectancy / Literacy / GDP index1.Canada / 0.935 / 79.1 / 99% / 23.6
2. Norway / 0.934 / 78.3 / 99% / 26.3
6.Sweden / 0.926 / 78.7 / 99% / 22.5
11.Finland / 0.917 / 77.0 / 99% / 20.8
44.Poland / 0.814 / 72.7 / 99.7% / 7.6
46.Estonia / 0.801 / 69.0 / 99% / 7.7
52.Lithuania / 0.789 / 70.2 / 99.5% / 6.4
62. Russia / 0.771 / 66.7 / 99.5% / 6.5
63.Latvia / 0.771 / 68.7 / 99.8% / 5.7
It seems that the third index - life expectancy index – is crucial for Estonia.. In order to raise it, authors of 1999` UNDP Estonian Report emphasise, we need better living conditions, which would increase the lifespan, especially among men. As we see gender is the important HDI component.
3. Home and work
Work-overload as the social problem of men.
The salary is the main issue, and in Estonia as well in the countries men´s wages are higher: women´s wages % from men´s wages have increased from 71.1% in 1994 to 74.2 in 1998. The largest differences between men and women are in the highest wage group (month salary higher than 8 000 EEK) where is 81% men and 19% women. What is the meaning of higher wages and its consequences? There is no single answer, however higher salary means also more work. So, men should have longer days and more intensive work than women.
This hypothesis have supportive data. So, as seen from Finnish angle, all the Baltic countries have fairly long working weeks (Antila, Ylostalo, 1999). Almost every forth Estonian worked six or seven days during the week and ca 25% worked more than 41 hours week preceding in accordance with above-mentioned inquiry. 35% men consider work intensity is too high; during the last 12 months men 52% and 45% reported about increase of work intensity (Antila, Ylostalos, 1999).
This over-working and increasing work intensity may be among factors of Estonia`s economical success, and this also finally resulted in human development index calculated by UNDP.
However, more than long working week and work intensity , changes of job have probably influenced men´s life-span. During 1991 – 1998 more than half men have changed work place (Hansson, 1999). It is, of course result of re-structuring of the Estonian economy and building up capitalism.
How frequently have changed job men from the other countries?
Changing jobs during last 8 years, working population, 18 – 70 years old
(Hansson, 1999)
Figure 1
68% men (and even 70% men from Tallinn) have changed jobs during last 8 years. There are three main causes which motivated people to change job. The first cause is liquidation of position or firm, lay- offs, bankruptcy; the second one is the wage conditions and third one working conditions (physical and psychological conditions).
Let`s describe the individual case: what has happen with quite typical Estonian family. The head of family, Ants ( 52 years old) was chief-engineer in Norma during Soviet time, however during transition he was reduced to status of student, beginner in same Norma. Sure he felt very badly, very depressive. His wife coped better with transition, however real winners were their sons ; one son continued studies in England, other boy succeeded to build up a factory near to the capital city /somebody gave him very big loan for this factory/. It is typical story of loosers and winners in Estonia.
The main reasons for changing jobs, working population,
18 – 70 years old (%), (Hansson, 1999)
Figure 2
We see the drastic differences between men and women in position of wages; significantly more men have changed job for money than women. L. Hansson (1999) interpreted this result as the manifestation of men´s voluntary choice to contra women´s forced job changing. However, I suppose that men also forced to earn more by traditional view of men as breadwinner. It is hard to say how voluntary is looking for new jobs.
Tabel 5
Answers to question `How do you estimate your chance of finding a new job , % (Hansson, 2000)
Estonians / Estonians / Non-Estonians / Non-EstoniansMen / women / Men / Women
Good / 20 / 9 / 12 / 7
Average / 45 / 38 / 31 / 25
Bad / 18 / 33 / 26 / 34
Hard to say / 17 / 20 / 31 / 33
As we see men are more optimistic what concerns finding a new job than women; in the most worse situation are non-Estonian (Russian) women. Non-Estonians are more pessimistic about finding a new job; so they are under great pressure.
The estimation of finding a new job depends how people have previous job. And here studies have revealed very interesting data.
Tabel 6
Methods of obtaining the previous job: working population, 18 – 70 years old, % (Hansson, 2000)
Estonian / Estonian / Non-Estonian / Non-Estonianmen / Women / Men / women
Friends or acquaintances / 45 / 47 / 55 / 52
Newspaper advertisement / 13 / 17 / 11 / 11
Relatives / 11 / 9 / 12 / 13
Employment agency / 1 / 2 / 4 / 3
Assignment from school / 5 / 9 / 4 / 8
By employer initiative / 7 / 7 / 6 / 7
Founded private enterprise / 8 / 2 / 3 / 1
Other / 10 / 9 / 5 / 5
The sociological population survey `Estonia 98` showed very explicitly how important is the role of informal social networking in obtaining a job. Friends and acquaintances were the most substantial in finding a job. Friends were even more important for non-Estonians. Here is may be hidden also answer to question why men are more optimistic about finding a new job. As a general rule, women´s personal networks are more focused on their relatives, while men´s ones contain more contacts from outside their families: friends, people with similar interests, etc.
What is price of so frequent job changes? It should reflect in some health indicators.
b) Family, home, leisure.
Traditionally Estonians have valued family and home very highly.
Table 7
Men´s and women´s values (Narusk, 2000; Estonia 1998),
5 – very important… 1 – not at all
Men / WomenHealth 4.71 / Children 4.90
Children 4.70 / Family 4. 87
Family 4.70 / Health 4.83
Clean environment 4.43 / Clean environment 4.58
Economic well-being 4.32 / Close friends 4.20
Professional work 4.17 / Economic well-being 4.18
Close friends 4.16 / Professional work 4.11
To know world events 3.82 / Self-education 3.82
Self-education 3.55 / To know world events 3.70
Physical fitness 3.47 / Satisfying cultural interests 3.69
The top values for Estonians are children, health, family and it is true for the both sexes. However , there is a good example discrepancy between attitudes and behaviour; attitudes towards family and children are good, however reality is opposite.
The live births size in 1987 – 1988 (the beginning of perestroika) was highest, correspondingly 25 086 and 25 060, and now there is ca 12 000 births in Estonia. J. Uibo (1999) have calculated ca 60 000 children are not born to the end of 1998; this figure is very negative for Estonia. As consequence the population is becoming rapidly old. It is also called sometimes as the social price of fast economical changes and success.
Estonians say that they value family, however 1997 the number of divorces reached the number of marriages (ca 5 500). Children born out of traditional family. Share of children born out of wedlock has increased (25% in 1989, 38% in 1993; in 1995 31% from cohabitation, and 13% from single mothers) . Ca 25% men are cohabiting.. The size of Estonian family is 3.1.
The important characteristic of life quality is leisure time. We see that typical Estonian have 2 – 3 free hours during 5 working days (what is amount of free time in the other countries?)
Table 7
Amount of leisure time on weekdays by gender, 1993 – 1996, %
Less than 1 hour 2 – 3 hours 4 and more hours1993 / 1998 / 1993 / 1998 / 1993 / 1998
Men / 7 / 9 / 49 / 44 / 44 / 47
Women / 16 / 19 / 54 / 50 / 30 / 31
The research question: what is reason discrepancy between Estonian values and real behaviour in family?
4. Social exclusion.
Estonians are not very familiar with the concept of social exclusion; for instance, poverty or absent of freedom are more clear concept. May be there is also psychological reason: it is hard to recognise that thousand of people are socially excluded from social life of new independent state. As social exclusion have many very different manifestations, then it is also one reason to determine it.
The first most visible social exclusion example. What people see that are some people are looking something, usually bottles in trash containers. Nobody knows how many containers people we have, but it is clear that number is in thousands, and [GT1]they are mainly non-Estonian, Russian speaking men, between age 30 – 50 years. Some of them are homeless, however here is clear gap of knowledge.
Take the second probably less visible example of social exclusion.
People spend less leisure time outside, more at home. It may be consequence as economic difficulties as well the world trend – expansion of electronic media. Or 1993, almost 1993 half of men and women read at least two newspaper, but five years later of them (72%) read only one, or read none regularly. Men reduced reading more than women (Järve, 2000).
In Estonia differences in education are becoming problem; men are less educated than women. In 1998 upper-secondary graduation of women to men was 120.8, and full-time equivalent university enrolments ratio was 130,0 favor to women. This is begin from 14- 15 years old
When boys have significantly higher drop out, especially in country-side.
All different forms of social exclusion, including above-mentioned ones, are mainly the result of social stratification.
Table 8
Ratios of wealth and poverty
1994 / 1995 / 1996 / 1997 / 1998Ratio of income of highest 20% to lowest 20% of households (%) # / 78 / 768 / 633 / 536 / 536
Share of 40% lowest households from income of all households ¤ / 16.4 / 16.9 / 19.3 / 23.4 / 22.4
# Source: EMOR;
¤ Source:OECD
It is hard to say are these ratios high or low. However, person from low income group have only one fifth of high income group or person from high income group is equal to five from low income group. It is interesting to compare these data with other countries, an then to conclusion about Estonia. Out of doubt significant size of these ratios refer to social exclusion.
Table 9
Weakening social fabric in Estonia
Prisoners per 100000 / Juveniles % of total prisoners / Homici-des per 100000 / Rapes per 100000 / Drug crimes per 100000 / Asylum applications thousands / Births outside marriage
216 / 1.5 / 17.1 / 11.6 / 16.2 / 82.7 / 52.2
It is also important to compare these data with other nations to conclude something.
There are data about people estimation on gender equal rights, acuteness of gender inequality question. On the scale, 5 point scale, acuteness of gender equalities received by men 2.20, and by women 2.45, e.g. problem is not very acute, serious for Estonia. The serious problem was criminality (men = 4.56; women = 4.68); poverty (men = 4.23; women = 4.38); unemployment (men = 4.12; women = 4.30); then drugs; incomplete, faulty laws, jurisdiction; corruption; ecology; drinking; etc, and finally gender questions.
V. Violences.
There is no regular survey`s on security and violence in population, since such studies are expensive (Josing, Ashven, 1999), but as I know serious violence survey is initiated couple of months ago. Especially hidden are sexual abuse cases (only recently people begin to recognise that children sexual abuse exist at all in Estonia), and rape is covered strongly. Only serious offences and murders are reflected in statistic, however `small` crime, especially violence in family is reported ca 20% of all cases.
Crime statistic in risk group (homeless, drunkards, drug addict) is even more unreliable.
Figure 5
Statistic of murders as cause of deaths in Estonia.
In survey `Life-conditions in Estonia 1994´ (the worse year in modern history of Estonia) victims of violence were tried figure out. It was found that 3.7% men and 1.2% women became victims of violence and had body injuries; almost 7% 18 – 24 men became victims (4425 respondents). 4.5% (calculated figure ca 23 000) men and 1.6% (ca 10 000) were victims of attack what did not produced injuries. Totally it does ca 42 000 men and 20 000 women who were victims of violence.