Chapter 1 Identifications
government: made up of individuals and institutions, vehicle through which policies are made and the affairs of the state are conducted
politics: the process of how policy decisions get made; the study of "who gets what, when, and how"
Thomas Hobbes: wrote The Leviathan; believed humans were selfishly individualistic and constantly at war with one another, therefore people must surrender themselves to rulers in exchange for protection from their neighbors.
John Locke (s): wrote Second Treatise on Civil Government; used natural rights to support his social contract theory--the view tht the consent of the people is the only true basis of any sovereign's right to rule...individuals agree, through a contract, to form a government to protect their rights under natural law. By agreeing to be governed, individuals agree to abide by the decisions made by the majority vote in the resolution of disputes.
monarchy: the rule of one in the interest of all of his or her subjects
totalitarianism: ruler excerises unlimited power and individuals have no personal rights or liberties
oligarchy: participation in government is conditioned on the possession of wealth, social status, military position, or achievement
democracy: gives power to the people either directly or through their elected representatives
social contract theory: the belief that people are free and equal by God-given right and that this in turn requires that all people give their consent to be governed
direct democracy (e): a system of government in which members of the polity meet to discuss all policy decisions and then agree to abide by majority rule; example: ancient Greece
indirect democracy (representative democracy): a system of government that gives citizens the opportunity to vote for representatives who will work on their behalf
republic: a government rooted in the consent of the governed; a representative or indirect democracy
political culture: commonly shared attitudes, beliefs, and core values about how government should operate
personal liberty: key characteristic of U.S. democracy; intially meant freedom from government interference; today it includes demands for fredom to engage in a variety of practices free from governmental discrimination
equality: reflects Americans' stress on the individual; "one person, one vote"--political equality
popular consent: the idea that governments must draw their powers from the consent of the governed
popular sovereignty: the right of the majority to govern themselves
civil society: society created when citizens are allowed to organize and express their views publicly as they engaged in an open debate about public policy
individualism: all individuals are deemed rational and fair; primary function of government is to enable the individual to achieve his or her highest level of development
baby boom (s): 76.8 million people born after WWII (1946-1964) ; now reaching retirement age, putting a strain on Social Security and Medicare systems
Generation X: liberatarian generation; 50 million born in the late 1960s through the mid 1970s; experiencd economic downturn in the late 1980s; believe political leaders ignore them and distrust the political process; believe capitalism can be used for social change
Generation Y: people born from 1977 to 1994; grown up in good times, optimistic about future; internet savvy and more globally focused
political ideology: the coherent set of values and beliefs about the purpose and scope of government held by groups and individuals; the means by which the basic values held by a party, class, group or individual are articulated
conservative: one thought to believe that the government is best that governs the least and that big government can only infringe on individual, personal, and economic rights; a defender of the status quo who, when change is necessary in tested institutions or practices, prefers that it comes slowly, in moderation
liberal: one considered to favor extensive governmental involvement in the economy and the provision of social services and to take an activist role in proctecting the rights of women, the elderly, minorities, and the environment; currently one who believes in more government action to meet individual needs, originally one who resisted government encroachments on individual liberties
libertarian: one who favors a free market economy and no governmental interference in personal liberties

Chapter 2 Identifications
Declaration of Independence: Document drafted by Thomas Jefferson in 1776 that proclaimed the right of the American colonies to separate from Great Britain.
Articles of Confederation: The compact among the thirteen original states that was the basis of their government. Written in 1776, the Articles were not ratified by all the states until 1781.
• A national government with a Congress empowered to make peace, coin money, appoint officers for an army, control the post, and negotiate with Indians.
• Each state retains independence and sovereignty to govern within ins territories.
• One vote in the Continental Congress for each state, regardless of size.
• 9/13 to pass a measure, unanimous for amendment.
• Selection and payment of delegates to Congress by their state legislatures.
Shays's Rebellion (s): A 1786 rebellion in which an army of 1,500 disgruntled and angry farmers led by Daniel Shays marched to Springfield, Massachusetts and forcibly restrained the state court from foreclosing mortgages on their farms. The failure of Congress to muster and army to put down the rebellion showed the weaknesses inherent in the Articles of Confederation and shocked the nation's leaders into recognizing the new government's overwhelming inadequacies.
Constitution: A document establishing the structure, functions, and limitations of a government.
Charles A. Beard: Wrote the Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States which argued that the 1780's were critical for businessmen who wanted a strong national government to promote industry and trade, and protect private property. According to Beard, the constitution represents “An economic document drawn with superb skill by men whose property interests were immediately at stake.
Virginia Plan:
• Creation of a powerful central government with three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial.
• A population based two-house legislature with one house elected directly by the people, the other chosen from among persons nominated by the state legislatures.
• A legislature with the power to select the executive (a president serving a single 7 year term) and the judiciary.
New Jersey Plan:
• Unicameral legislature with one vote per state.
• Congress has the power to raise revenue from duties and postal service.
• Creating a supreme court with members appointed for life by the executive officers
Great Compromise:
• The house of representatives would be based on population, and directly elected by the people. This house would have the power to originate all bills concerning raising and spending money
• All states would have equal say in the other house, the Senate. Representatives there would be selected by state legislatures
3/5 Compromise: Agreement reached at the Constitutional Convention stipulating that each slave was to be counted as three-fifths of a person for purposes of determining population for representation in the U.S. House of Representatives.
The Preamble: a brief introductory statement of the fundamental purposes and guiding principles which the Constitution is meant to serve. “We the People of the United States” boldly proclaimed that a loose confederation of independent states no longer existed.
Federal System: Plan of government created in the U.S. Constitution in which power is divided between the national government and the state governments and in which independent states are bound together under one national government.
Separation of Powers: A way of dividing power among three branches of government in which members of the House of Representatives, members of the Senate, the president, and the federal courts are selected by and responsible to different constituencies.
17th Amendment: Called for the direct election of senators by the voters, making them directly accountable in the people, thereby making the system more democratic.
Checks and balances (s): A governmental structure that gives each of the three branches of government some degree of oversight and control over the actions of the others. Allowed framers to reduce the threat of tyranny from any one branch.
Enumerated Powers (s): Seventeen specific powers granted to congress under Article I section 8 of the U.S. Constituion; these powers include taxation, coinage of money, regulation of commerce, and the authority to provide for a national defense. Granted powers to Congress previously denied by the Articles of Confederation.
Necessary and proper clause (s): Gives Congress the authority to pass all laws “necessary and proper” to carry out the enumerated powers specified in the Constitution; also called the "Elastic Clause". Source for congressional activity never anticipated by the framers.
Implied Powers (e): Powers derived from the enumerated powers and the elastic clause. Powers that are considered reasonably implied through the exercise of delegated powers. Federal minimum-wage and maximum-hour laws. Regulating trains and planes.
Supremacy clause (s): National law is supreme to all other laws passed by states or by any other subdivision of government. Linchpin of the entire federal system.
Federalists: Those who favored a stronger national government and supported the prosed U.S. Constitution; later became the first U.S. Political party.
Anti-Federalists: Those who favored strong state governments and a weak national government; opposed the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
The Federalist Papers: A series of 85 political papers written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison in support of the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution.
27th Amendment: Amendment preventing members of the House from raising their own salaries.
Equal Rights Amendment: Womens rights amendment that, despite gaining overwhelming majorities in congress, failed to be ratified by the states, showing how hard it is to amend the Constitution.
Informal Amendments (e): When judicial review is used as a means to “amend” the constitution. When the Constitution is interpreted a certain way by the Supreme Court. Seen in social example with womens rights. While there is no specific womens rights amendment, the courts have interpreted the Constitution to prohibit forms of gender discrimination.

Chapter 3 Identifications
Unitary System (e): system of government where the local and regional governments derive all authority from a strong national government (ex. Great Britain)
Privileges & Immunities Clause: part of Article IV of the Constitution guaranteeing that the citizens of each state are afforded the same rights as citizens of all other states
10th Amendment: final part of the Bill of Rights that defines the basic principle of American federalism in stating: “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, not prohibited by it to the states reserved to the states respectively, or to the people.”
Reserved Powers: powers reserved to the states by the 10th amendment that lie at the foundation of a state's right to legislate for the public health and welfare of its citizens.
Concurrent Powers (e): authority by both the state & national governments that may be exercised concurrently as long as that power is not exclusively within the scope of national power or in conflict with national law (Ex. Taxing)
Full Faith & Credit Clause: portion of article IV of the Constitution that ensures judicial decrees and contracts made in one state will be binding and enforceable in any other state.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): The Supreme Court upheld the power of the national government and denied the right of a state to tax the bank. The court's broad interpretation of the necessary and proper clause paved the way for later ruling upholding expansive federal powers.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): The Supreme Court upheld broad congressional power to regulate interstate commerce. The Court's broad interpretation of the Constitution's commerce clause paved the way for later rulings upholding expansive federal powers.
Commerce Clause (s): used to justify a great deal of federal legislation, including regulation of highways, the stock market, and even segregation.
Dual Federalism: the belief that having separate and equally powerful levels of government is the best arrangement
NLRB v. Jones and Laughlin Steel Co. (1937): Authorized collective bargaining between unions and employees; upheld the constitutionality of the national labor relations act of 1935
Cooperative Federalism: the relationship between the national and state governments that began with the New Deal
Surface Transportation Act: withheld 5% of the federal highway funds from states that failed to pass legislation prohibiting persons under the age of 21 from drinking alcoholic beverages
Categorical Grants: grant for which congress appropriates funds for a specific purpose
Great Society (p,s): broad attempt to combat poverty & discrimination; federal funds channeled to states, local governments, and citizen action groups; altered the fragile federal /state balance of power
New Federalism: federal/state relation proposed by Reagan administration during the 1980s; hallmark is returning administrative powers to the state governments
Reagan Revolution: Reagan administration's budget and its policies dramatically altered the relationships among federal, state, and local governments – federal aid to state and local governments declined for the first time in 30 years.
Block Grant: broad grant with few strings attached; given to states by the federal government for specified activities such as secondary education or health services
Devolution Revolution: scaling back the federal government in 1994; caused republicans to take back the House of Representatives
Unfunded Mandates (e): National laws that direct states or local governments to comply with federal rules or regulations (such as clean air or water standards) but contain no federal funding to defray the cost of meeting these requirements (ex. Clean water act and the safe drinking water act)
No Child Left Behind Act (p): higher education standards, greater school accountability, ensuring qualified teachers, closing the gap in student achievement.
Preemption: a concept derived from the Constitution's supremacy clause that allowed the national government to override or preempt state or local actions in certain areas.
Webster v. Reproductive Services(1989) (s): encouraged states to fashion more restrictive abortion laws – which actually happened.
U.S. v. Lopez (1995): Court ruled that congress had constitutional authority under the commerce clause to regulate guns within 1000 feet of a school – local gun control in schools was a state, not a federal, matter.
Printz v. U.S. (1997): Congress lacks the power to compel state officers to execute federal laws.
Sovereign Immunity: The right of a state to be free from lawsuit unless it gives permission to suit, under the 11th amendment all states are considered sovereign.
Discussion
• Privileges and Immunities: States can't discriminate against people of other states
◦ Exception: College Tuition Costs
• Full Faith & Credit Clause: One state has to respect the judicial rulings of another
◦ Exception: Defense of Marriage Act
• Unitary System: Policy-making power is in the hands of the national government; homogeneous
• Reserved Powers: powers of the state; 10th amendment
◦ Exception: Ratifying Constitutional Amendments
• Prominent Concurrent Powers: tax, establish courts
POWERS