The “BIOLOGY I SURVIVAL GUIDE”
Total magnification of a microscope is calculated by multiplication = ocular x objective.
If the ocular is10x and the low power objective is 20x, then the total magnification is 200x.
When using a balance scale, calibrate the scale so it reads zero BEFORE ANYTHING is placed upon it.
OR subtract the weight of the container on the scale that is used to hold something by knowing its empty weight.
If measuring the volume of something in a liquid, subtract the starting volume from the ending volume.
When using a thermometer allow time for the temperature to stabilize. The freezing point of water was chosen to be zero degrees Celsius (0 oC), while the boiling point of water was selected to be 100 degrees C.
ANYTHING that can be tested and measured is a potentially valid question for research or experimentation.
(Science is unable to answer questions that can’t be measured or tested.)
The Scientific Method is a process used to learn and/or test things. While there are various “scientific methods” used, they all operate around some basic steps similar to this outline…
- Observation – gathering information. This includes learning by see, feel, smell, hear,& taste tasting. Observations can also include reading text or taking measurements.
- Question – asking about an unknown (including anything that can be tested).
- Hypothesis – A small statement (“an educated guess”) that can be tested.
The hypothesis should…identify the independent (tested) and dependent (measured) variables
A. be written in an “If…,then…” format,
B. the “If…” portion of the statement should outline the experimental treatment/test, &
C. the “then…” portion of the hypothesis should predict the outcome by stating what you think will result/happen in response to the treatment (and address the question at hand).
- Experiment – the procedure used to test a hypothesis. Trying something to see what happens.
- Results – This is what happened (usually past tense) in the experiment. Collected data.
- Conclusion – This is what the results/data means (usually present tense). Supported finding.
- Theory – a belief that becomes accepted as true because it has been supported by many findings.
Pie Chart – used when data… (picture on the right)
- has specific categories
- is reported PERCENTAGES and the sum of all the
categories adds up to 100%
Key = independent variable (tested)
Percent/number = dependent variable (measured)
On scatter plots, line graphs, and bar graphs the…
X axis (bottom) = independent variable (tested)
Y axis (side) = dependent variable (measured)
Scatter Plot – (pictured on the right)
A scatterplot is used to report two sets of quantitative (numerical)
data sets, each point being reported on a case by case basis.
Line Graph –Bar Graph –
Maintaining an Objective (fair) & Accurate Experiment – (Control, Independent Variable, Dependent Variables, Sample Size, and quantitative vs. qualitative data measures)
The goal of science is to learn new things, so it is good to be objective and seek the truth by ensuring that an experiment is done correctly with good controls, is repeatable, and tested a sufficient number of times (not just once or twice).
Only one thing at a time should change between the different groups being tested. The one thing that is changed is known as the independent variable, which is purpose for the experiment.Independent refers to being “in charge” or influencing.
Experimental controls (constraints) keep everything fair between the various treatment groups by keeping all non-tested factors the same. Every experiment should have a control group to establish a base line.A placebo is a type of control group (a fake treatment) that goes through all the other conditions to determine if any other factors may have influenced the outcome/measurements besides the item(s) being tested.
The dependent variables are what is measured, and record the what is responding or being influenced by the treatments.
Sample size (n) is another factor that influences the credibility of an experiment. The more something is tested and found to be consistent, generally the more accurate the test is.
When possible, small sample sizes, qualitative measures, non-repeatable experiments, biased experiments, & inconsistent controls are all faults and should be avoided when pursuing science.
A null-hypothesis is another explanation for the same outcome.
CHEMISTRY
1.Atoms – the smallest form of an element that still maintains the properties of that element.
2.Atoms are also the basic structural components of all matter.
3.Sub-atomic particles are the small parts that are than an atom. Remember,
“sub” means beneath or less than so these are less than an atom.
4.The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons.
5.Atomic # = the # of protons
6.Atomic Mass = P + N(the electrons are so small they are not included).
7.Atomic Charge = P – e (Protons are +, Neutrons are neutral, electrons are -).
8.An atom is composed of a nucleus and the outer electron fields. These fields can hold less electrons than they want, but not more. The first electron field around an atom’s nucleus wants 2e-. The second & third e- fields want 8e- To get their desired number, atomswill bond w/ other atoms that will give, take, or share electrons.
The nucleus alsocontains theneutrons, which do NOT have a charge.
9.A chemical element is a pure chemical substance consisting of one type of atom.
10.When two or more atoms bond together, they form a molecule. Molecules can be formed by atoms of the same element or from different elements. When the elements are different, the molecule is referred to as a compound.
Covalent bonds form when two atoms share electrons. NOTE: start off w/ no charge, but end up w/ polar sides
Ionic bondform when atoms exchange electrons. This occurs when ions of opposite charges are attracted to one another.NOTE: start off w/ a charge, and end up neutral.
Water (H2O). Water is a polar molecule, which means one (H) side is positive the other (O) side is negative. The polar positive side of one water molecule (positive of one)polar negative of another water molecule (the negative of another) create hydrogen bonds.
Water’s polarity gives it unique characteristics…
- Hydrogen bonds give water cohesion properties (ability to stick to itself) & surface tension(bugs on pond),
- Water’s ability to stick to other things is known as adhesion,
- Water molecules line up when frozen, causing ice to expand…making ice less dense.
Water is also a temperature stabilizer because ithas a “high specific heat,” which means it resists temperature change.
pH – measures the acidity/base (amount of free hydrogen) of a solution.
0 (strong acid) (weak acid) 7 (weak base) (strong base) 14
ACIDIC [H+] NEUTRAL BASIC [OH-]
The LOWER the pH value, the GREATER the concentration of H+ ions in a solution.
The HIGHER the pH value, the GREATER the concentration of OH- ions in the solution.
Synthesis enzyme (ex. Found in ribosomes) / Decomposition enzyme – (ex. Found in lysosomes)A catalyst speeds up a reaction but is not altered by the reaction. Enzymes are organic catalysts. Some enzymes put substrates together, while other enzymes take substrates apart. Temperature and pH influence enzyme activity.
ATP/ADP cycle
The adenosine triphosphate (ATP) breaks into adenosine diphosphate (ADP) + Phosphate.
ATP stores energy. This energy becomes available for cellular activities (metabolism) by breaking a phosphate (P) molecule from ATP.
ADP is a byproduct of the ATP cycle, and is recycled for later use.
Photosynthesismeans to make from light (sugar is stored chemical energy)
6CO2 (6 carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (6 water) + energy (sunlight) 6O2 (6 oxygen) + C6H12O6 (1 sugar)
Cellular Respiration is the breakdown (“burning”) of fuel (glucose) by a cell, which requires oxygen (O2).
6O2 (6 oxygen) + C6H12O6 (1 sugar) 6CO2 (6 carbon dioxide) + 6H2O (6 water) + energy
Aerobic Respiration is the metabolism of carbohydrates in the presence of oxygen (“Air robic” – with air/breathing)
1 GLUCOSE typically makes 36 ATP molecules (2 in the cytoplasm, and 34 in the mitochondria)
Anaerobic Respiration is the metabolism WITHOUT oxygen (NOTE: the “AN” in Anaerobic means without air).
BIOMES – environment types NOTE THE TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS NEEDED by LIVING THINGS
Temperate grasslands - moderate rain, changing temperature seasons, good soil, grasses. RISKS ARE WINDS & FIRE.
Tropical rainforests- lots of rain, high temperatures. Diverse life. Many decomposers. Nutrients are taken up quickly by the many life forms, leaving the soil low in nutrients. Broad leaves to collect sunlight.
Deciduous forests - Moderate rain, changing temperature, trees lose leaves in winter, animals hibernate during the winter.
Coniferous (taiga) forest – cold little rainfall. Trees have needles year round. Animals have hair, bigfeet for snow.
Savanna - Hot, seasonal rainfall. (Africa)
Deserts - Very dry, little plant life, hot. Organisms need ways to save water (scales on reptiles and wax on plants).
Tundra– Cold, frozen ground. Very little/no plant life. Animals are typically white have a lot of body fat to keep warm.
Abiotic factors – non-living factors: air, water, minerals, temperature, etc.
Biotic factors – living factors in an environment, come from organisms.
Ecology – The study of organisms and their environment.
Food chain/web – a model that represents the feeding relationships within an environment. It shows how food, matter, energy, etc cycle within an ecosystem resulting from organisms consuming each other.
Energy - Only 10% of the energy from each level of the energy is passed onto the higher levels of the pyramid. The other 90% is lost into the environment as heat.
Troph (as in the Trophic Levels) – “Trophic level” refer to each step of the energy pyramid. The largest level in the energy pyramid is the first level, which is the producing level. The second level is the “first order CONSUMER (eater), which includeherbivores (plant eaters), omnivores (organisms that eat both plants and animals), andcarnivores (meat eaters).Scavengers are opportunistic feeder that eats whatever it can find, and decomposersinclude bacteria and fungi that break down organic matter. The energy pyramid is similar to the bio-mass pyramidand the pyramid of numbers (populations).
Autotroph/producers – makes its own energy, including plants…which are the basis of energy production in the energy pyramid. This is the largest level of the energy pyramid.
Heterotroph/consumers – Energy from something else, meaning consumes something (eats) to get energy. First level consumers are on the 2nd level of the energy pyramid, second level consumers are on the 3rd level of the energy pyramid, etc. Heterotrophs include herbivores, omnivores, carnivores, insectivores, scavengers, & decomposers.
Systems and Interactions – How different groups or systems interact or influenceeach other. If all the mosquitoes in the world died, then fish and other organisms would have lost a food source and some other organisms may die as a result.
Predator/Prey relationship – The predator follows the prey in BOTH physical location and in population size. When the prey population goes up, the predator population will soon go up. This will drive the prey population down, which will then drive the predator population down. As a result, the prey will go back up, and the predator will follow.
Three types of Symbiosis (living together)
- Mutualism – both benefit
- Commensalism – one benefits & the other not affected.
- Parasitism – one benefits at the expense of the other.
Carbon cycle
Know the photosynthesis and cellular respiration equations. Know the main form of carbon include carbon dioxide (CO2), carbohydrates (CH2O), & fossil fuels. Carbon enters the atmosphere during cellular respiration & burning of fossil fuels.
Nitrogen cycle
-Nitrogen fixation in the ground (ammonia) occurs fromlighteningor by bacteriain the soil orin plant roots.
-Nitrogen can go back intothe air bydenitrificationor by theburning offossil fuels.
-Ammonia in theground breaksdown into nitritesand nitrates.
-Nitrogen is needed to make amino acids, amine groups, and proteins.
Primarysuccession is the first time an ecosystem develops (an examples may islands from volcanoes or a new lake). Secondarysuccession is the recovery of an ecosystem after some type of major interruption/disaster (fire, pollution, etc).
A population grows in 4 major stages. These stages include…
- Initial growth (getting started)
- Exponential growth (rapid)
- Leveling-Off growth (slowing down)
- Carrying Capacity (maximum # sustainable)
A climax community is fully developed community with many species. The difference between a climax community and a carrying capacity (of population growth) is the carrying capacity only considers one species, while the climax community includes all the species in an area. (Learn how to relate the concept of predator/prey relationship to this graph).
Greenhouse effect is a processof heating up the earth by trapping sunlight and heat within our atmosphere.
ALL CELLS CONTAIN a cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes.
The cell theory states…
- Cells come from pre-existing cells,
- Cells are the basic unit of life, &
- All living things are made of cells
Prokaryotes do not contain organelles. No nucleus, chromosomes are in the cytoplasm. The first cells on earth.
Eukaryotes – Cells contain organelles (membrane bound structures in the cell), include protists, fungi, plants, & animals.
Cilia- many short hair like structures on a cell that can be used to move the cell or move a fluid across the surface.
Flagella – a single long hair like structure that is used to move a cell (swim) like a sperm.
Cellswalls – Provide structural support for the cells and regulate what goes into and out of the cell.NOT IN ANIMALS.
Cell membrane – regulates what goes in and out of the cell. Found in both plants and animals.
Passive transport – transportation of something through a cell membrane without energy from a [high] to a [low].
Diffusion – going from a high concentration to a low concentration.
Osmosis – the diffusion of water from a [high] to a [low].
Hypotonic – less mixture makes cells swell.
Hypertonic – more mixture makes cells shrink.
Isotonic – equal mixture, cells stay the same size.
Active transport – transporting through channels from a [low]to a [high].“active” since it requires energy while it makes things more concentrated.
Cell structures and roles
Nucleus – (organelle) the control center of the cell. Regulates the
cellular activities, contains (DNA) in chromosomes.
Vacuole – A storage compartment to store water, nutrients, &
waste until needed or removed.Vacuoles are large in plants.
Chloroplast – In plants. Produces energy from sunlight by
combining water carbon dioxide to make carbohydrates.
Ribosome – Helps make proteins by containing enzymes.
Cytoplasm – A semi-granular fluid inside the cell.
Mitochondria – An organelle that acts like the power-plant for the
cell makes energy available for the cell by making ATP.
Golgi apparatus – An organelle that makes and transports proteins
Endoplasmic reticulum – An organelle that makes and transports proteins
Lysosome– An organelle that contains enzymes for breaking down waste. Not found in most plants.
Reproduction – Organisms need to produce offspring (babies) to replace individuals within a population as they die off. Without reproduction, a population (and life) would die off.
Asexual reproduction occurs in organisms that do not need a mate to reproduce. This occurs primarily in bacteria, archae, and protists. (There are a few plants & a few animals that can reproduce asexually, but such isn’t typical).
Mitosis cell division for growth & development – This type of cell division produces 2 identical somatic cells that are diploid (2n). (n represents the number of chromosomes found in the .
- Interphase – stage between cell divisions. Interphase includes three stages…
A. G1 - growth one, in which the cell gets larger),
B. S - synthesis, in which the DNA is duplicated. “)” becomes “)(“, &
C.G2 - growth two, in which extra organelles are produced to prepare for mitosis & cell division).
- Prophase - DNA condenses into chromosomes and nucleus disappears,
- Metaphase - chromosomes line up,
- Anaphase - chromosomes split,
- Telophase - cell membrane splits and divides, creating two new identical diploid (2n) “daughter cells” for growth.
Sexual reproduction requires opposite sexes and reproduce by making gametes (sex cells: sperm/egg) via meiosis.
Meiosis – reductional divisionfor reproduction requires meiosis to produce haploid cells known as gametes… including the sperm/eggs.
- Interphase–see description above (in mitosis).
The first division of meiosis is known as “meiosis I,” and separates the homologous chromosomal pairs.
- Prophase I– “tetrids”(homologous chromosomes) pair up. Crossing over occurs for independent assortment
- Metaphase I – homologous chromosomes line up
- Anaphase I– homologous chromosomes separate (gene segregation)
- Telophase I– diploid cell divides creating haploid cells
Then we proceed directly into the 2nd stage of meiosis… “meiosis II”
- Prophase II –
- Metaphase II– chromosomes line up
- Anaphase II – chromosomes separate into chromatids
- Telophase II – cell divides creating sperm or eggs. These four new haploid (1n) gametes have genetic variation.
Fertilization - Two haploid cells, sperm & egg, combine to form a zygote, with a diploid set of DNA in its chromosomes.
Genes make up the chromosomes and code for everything in our body. They do this by using Nucleotides, which are the base pairs found on the “rungs” of the DNA double helix model. The nucleotides found in DNA include Adenine (A), Guanosine (G), Thymine (T), & Cytosine (C), and can be seen below. A purine group pairs with a pyrimidine group. When DNA copies itself during replication, “A” pairs with “T” (A-T) while “C” pairs w/ “G” (C-G). If a DNA sequence was CTA-GTC, then the pairing DNA sequence would be GAT-CAG.
Transcription is the process of making messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA strand. During this process, all the base pairs work the same as they do during DNA replication except RNA does not contain thymine (T), as thymine is replaced with Uricil (U) on a RNA strand. If a DNA sequence was GAT-CAG, then the complimentary mRNA sequence would be CUA-GUC. (Note: the DNA portion still contains T, only the mRNA does not contain T).