UNIT 4 IN-SITU CONSERVATION

Structure

4.0Introduction

4.1Objectives

4.2In-situ conservation

4.2.1In-situ conservation : Advantages, risk and opportunity

4.2.2Biodiversity Conservation : International Efforts

4.2.3India’s initiative for in-situ conservation

4.3Protected Areas in India

4.4National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuary

4.4.1Concepts of Species

4.5Biosphere Reserve

4.5.1Definition

4.5.2Characteristics of biosphere Reserves

4.5.3Function of Biosphere Reserve

4.5.4Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserve

4.6Wetlands

4.6.1Characteristics of Wetlands

4.6.2Classification of Wetlands

4.6.3Hydro geomorphic Classes

4.6.4Wetlands in Drylands

4.6.5Intertidal Wetlands

4.6.6Functions of Wetlands

4.6.7Protection and Rehabilitation

4.6.8Wetland in India

4.7Mangroves

4.7.1Occurrence

4.7.2Establishment

4.7.3Zonation in Mangroves

4.7.4Mangrove Ecology

4.7.5Mangrove Biology

4.7.6Species of Mangrove

4.7.7Geographical Regions particularly in Asia

4.8Coral Reef

4.8.1Biology

4.8.2Formation

4.8.3Distribution

4.8.4Ecology and Biodiversity

4.8.5Threats

4.8.6Protection and Restoration

4.8.7Reefs in Past

4.9Let us sum up

4.10Check your progress & the key

4.11Assignments / Activities

4.12References / Further Readings

4.0INTRODUCTION

The 1992, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, brought the topic of biodiversity conservation into the living rooms of the world and helped place this critical issue on the agendas of world leaders. While the ranks of those concerned with biodiversity seem to have diversified and increased, a basic understanding of what it is, what it means to mankind, and how it can be protected is still lacking.

In an effort to solve these problems, the World Conservation Union has attempted to clarify the definition and show the value of "biodiversity." Going beyond "genetic makeup," the IUCN interprets biodiversity to encompass all species of plants, animals, and microorganisms and the ecosystems (including ecosystem processes) to which they belong. Usually considered at three different levels--genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity--it is the complicated mosaic of living organisms that interact with abiotic substances and gradients to sustain life at all hierarchical levels (McNeely, 1990). Furthermore, each of these levels extends enormous, often immeasurable, economic and social benefits to mankind. Although it is recognized that a very high percentage of the total biodiversity exists in a small number of tropical countries, significant diversity also occurs in temperate zones and in aquatic ecosystems as well.

Biodiversity conservation is accomplished in a number of ways. During the last decade, plans for biodiversity conservation have been developed by the World Resource Institute and the IUCN with support from World Bank and other institutions. Basically, the conservation plan has an holistic approach and encompasses whole spectrum of biota and activities ranging from ecosystems at the macro level (in situ conservation) to DNA libraries at the molecular level (ex-situ consrvation). Ex-situ methods focus on species conservation in botanic gardens, zoos, gene banks, and captive breeding programs while in-situ methods use the conservation areas as "warehouses" of biological information.

4.1Objective

The main aim of this unit is to understand and identifying appropriate management interventions for conservation of biological resources through in-situ for the benefit of our future generations. Such steps are :

To share the knowledge and experiance of biodiversity conservation;

To study the factors that lead to environmental degradation and overuse of biological resources;

To understand the strategy for in-situ conservation and use of appropriate technology to achieve the goals of in-situ conservation;

To study the importance and mechanism of protected areas, biosphere reserves, wetlands, mangrooves, and coral reefs.

4.2IN-SITU CONSERVATION

In situ means in the natural, original place or position; as in the location of the explant on the mother plant prior to excision. In situ conservation which include conservation of plant and animals in their native ecosystem or even in man made ecosystem, where they naturally occur. Thus in-situ conservation refers to protection zones and areas of high biological diversity. These areas, describd as natural ecosystems, will protect species with minimum human interference.

This type of conservation applies only to wild fauna and flora and not to the domesticated animals and plants, because conservation is achieved by protection of populations in nature. This method of conservation mainly aims at preservations of land races with wild relatives in which genetic exists and/ or in which the weedy/ wild forms present hybrids with related cultivars. These are evolutionary systems that are difficult of plant breeders to stimulate and should not be knowingly destroyed.

The in-situ conservation of habitats has received high priority in the world conservation strategy programmes launched since 1980. Institutional, arrangement, especially in countries of the developing world, have been emphasized. This mode of conservation has some limitation however; there is risk of material being lost due to environmental hazards. Further the cost of a maintaining a large portion of available genotypes in nurseries or field may be extremely high.

In-situ conservation includes a system of protected areas of different categories e.g. National parks, Sanctuaries, National Monument, Cultural landscapes, Biosphere Reserves, etc. One of the best methods to save wildlife species, which is on the road to extinction, is to put it in a special enclosure to reproduce. Sanctuaries and National parks, whose legal definition varies from country to country, best illustrate this.

4.2.1Advantages, Risks, and Opportunities of In-situ Conservation

In-situ maintenance of biodiversity through the establishment of conservation and multiple-use areas offers distinct advantages over off-site methods in terms of coverage, viability of the resource, and the economic sustainability of the methods:

Coverage

A worldwide system of protected and multiple-use areas would allow a significant number of indigenous species and systems to be protected, thus taking care of the unknowns until such time as methods are found for their investigation and utilization.

Viability

Natural selection and community evolution continue and new communities, systems, and genetic material are produced (World Conservation Monitoring Center, 1992).

Economic sustainability

A country that maintains specific examples of biodiversity stores up future economic benefits. When the need develops and this diversity is thoroughly examined, commercially valuable genetic and biochemical material may be found.

It is not sufficient to establish a conservation area and then assume its biodiversity is automatically protected and without risk. Many risks, both natural and man-created, remain. An extreme example was the near-obliteration of the entire remaining habitat of the golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus r. rosalia) in 1992 by fire. Shaffer (1981) cites four broad categories of natural risk:

Demographic uncertainty resulting from random events in the survival and reproduction of individuals.

Environmental uncertainty due to random, or at least unpredictable, changes in weather, food supply, and the populations of competitors, predators, parasites, etc.

Natural catastrophes such as floods, fires, or droughts, which may occur at random intervals.

Genetic uncertainty or random changes in genetic make-up due to genetic drift or inbreeding that alter the survival and reproductive probabilities of individuals.

The greatest uncertainties, however, are often anthropogenic. The elimination of habitat to make way for human settlement and associated development activities is the most important factor contributing to the diminishing mosaic of biodiversity. These uncertainties can only be met with a full array of conservation programs, including those that use ex-situ methods.

Despite the long list of uncertainties and risk, there is hope for progress. In the last decade not only have pressures from the scientific community and the efforts of non-governmental organizations led to stronger language in international agreements, but segments of the development community have accepted the idea that a large degree of compatibility exists between the need to develop and the need to maintain biodiversity. Further acceptance depends, however, on a number of attitudinal adjustments on the part of many who call for in-situ conservation, as well as on a clearer understanding of the rationale behind it by those whose activities conflict with it. The success of conservation also requires a modification of how we cost economic goods and services in the short, medium, and long term.

Globally, the possibilities for undertaking in-situ programs such as national parks, biological reserves, and other conservation areas appear to be somewhat favorable. However, the status of these protected areas is often not healthy and unforeseen problems repeatedly arise. The establishment of the Gurupi Biological Reserve in the eastern Brazilian Amazon, for example, significantly increased the level of threat by causing a rush of illegal extraction of forest resources. This site is probably the most endangered conservation unit in the Amazon basin. Worldwide, the list of endangered protected areas is growing in number, and additional human-dominated activities such as water development, mining, road construction and resulting development, livestock grazing, poaching, logging, and other removal of vegetation continue to threaten their integrity (IUCN/UNEP/WWF, 1991).

4.2.2Biodiversity Conservation : International Efforts

Biodiversity is the variety and variations occurring in nature, which has sustained the harmonious existence of life on earth. The components of this diversity are so interdependent that any change in the system leads to major imbalance and threatens the normal ecological cycle.

Acknowledging the need for conservation, the concern for conservation of biodiversity at global level figured for the first time. In the discussion at the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm in 1972. The UNEP identified conservation as priority area in 197. It was only towards 1980’s that systemic and concentrated efforts to look at biodiversity conservation profile at international level started with constitution of an Ad hoc working group of experts on biological diversity by UNEP in 1987. Eventually an experts group was constituted by UNEP, which started it’s work in 1989.

“Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)” was one of the foremost issues discussed at the Earth Summit held at Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) between June 3 and 14, 1992. A ceremony to mark the opening of the convention on biological diversity took place in the afternoon on June 5. This convention entered into force on December 29, 1993. Feranando Collor, the President of the Federal Republic of Brazil was the first to sign the convention, followed by India, and 155 other nations. At present, 166 countries are parties to the convention.

This international treaty is a historic treaty in that it not only reflects the commitment of global community for conservation and sustainable used of biodiversity but also visualizes sharing of benefits arising out of utilisation of genetic resources with the countries of origin.

Objectives : According to this, the main objectives of the convention are :

  1. The conservation of biological diversity.
  2. The sustainable use of components of biodiversity.
  3. The fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization genetic resources.

Features : The main features of the convention are:

  1. The authority to determine access to genetic resources rests with national governments and is subject to national legislation;
  2. The commercial benefits arising out of the use of biological resources of a country will be shared with that country on a equitable and fair basis;
  3. The access to the transfer of technology to developing countries will be provided under fair and most favorable terms mutually arrived at. In case of technology subject to patents such access and are consistent with the adequate protection of intellectual property rights.
  4. The developed countries will provide new and additional financial resources to enable developing countries to meet the agreed full incremental costs to them of implementing measures which fulfill the obligation of the convention; and
  5. The extent to which developing country parties will effectively implement their commitments under the convention will depends on the effective implementation by developed country parties of their commitments under the convention related to financial resources and transfer of technology. The level of implantation by developing countries will also take into consideration the fact that economic development and poverty eradication are their primary and overriding priorities.

Each country/ nation shall as far as possible and as appropriate to take measure for in-situ conservation of biological diversity under article (8) of the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) which are summarized below :

  1. Establish a system of protected areas of areas where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity;
  2. Develop, where necessary, guide-lines for the selection establishment and management of protected area or area where special measures need to be taken to conserve biological diversity;
  3. Regulate or manage biological resources important for the conservation of biological diversity whether within or outside protected areas with a view to ensuring their conservation and sustainable use;
  4. Promote the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings;
  5. Promote environmentally sound and sustainable development in areas adjacent to protected areas with a view to furthering protection of these areas;
  6. Rehabilitate and restore degraded ecosystem and promote the recovery of threatened species, inter alia, through the development and implementation of plants or other management strategies;
  7. Establish or maintain means to regulate, manage or control the risk associated with the use and release of living modified organisms resulting from biotechnology which are likely to have adverse environmental impacts that could affect the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, taking also into account the risks to human health;
  8. Prevent the introduction of control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species;
  9. Endeavour to provide the conditions needed for compatibility between present uses and the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components;
  10. Subject to its national legislation, respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyle relevant for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of such knowledge, innovations and practices;
  11. Develop or maintain legislation and/ or other regulatory provisions for the protection of threatened species and population;
  12. Where a significant adverse effect on biological diversity has been determined pursuant to article 7 of CBD, regulate or manage the relevant processes and categories of activities and
  13. Cooperate in providing financial and other support for in-situ conservation outlined in subparagraphs (a) to (l) above, particularly to developing countries.

4.2.3India’s Initiative for In-situ Conservation

India is fortunately placed in a position of advantage. Ours is tropical country with a tremendous heterogeneity of environments ranging from tropical rain forests of Andaman and Arunachal Pradesh to the deserts of Rajasthan and Ladakh. It lies at the junction of the three biogeographical provinces of Africa, temperate Eurasia and Orient. As a result, it has rich biological heritage that qualifies it as one of the 12-megadiversity nations of the world.

The industrial nations, on the other hand, lie in temperate regions of the world that are quite poorly endowed with natural diversity. Also, many of these countries have suffered severe onslaught on nature till mid 19th or early 20th centuries. As a result, while these nations are far ahead of the tropical world in technologies, the bulk of biodiversity resides in third world countries.

India is, in a way a connecting link. We are not so rich in biodiversity as Colombia or Indonesia, nor so advanced technologically as Germany or Japan. But we possess both substantial levels of biodiversity and technological capabilities. So we must take the lead in steering the biodiversity convention in the direction of brighter scenario. Not only this, but being signatory to the convention, India has moral binding to adopt conservation measures as provided in various clauses of the CBD document.

Dr M S Swaminathan (1983) reviewed the scientific aspects of conservation. He suggested that the first step in conservation should be defining the categories of materials (plants/ genes) for preservation and the major methods preserving them.

In India, institutionalised management of biodiversity in situ started with the establishment of the first National Park, the HaileyNational Park (now JimCorbettNational Park) in 1935. Following this, more than 500 PAs were set up representing a wide range of ecosystems. The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) proposed a biogeographic classification system recognizing ten zones divided into 25 provinces in which over 300 landforms were identified. The existing network of PAs was evaluated for its representativeness vis-a-vis the classification system. Sites were identified to fill the gaps and the suggested network recommended 148 National Parks and 550 Sanctuaries covering 200,000 sq. kms, which is about 5 % of the country’s total geographical area. These suggestions have found extensive support and already 4.76% of the total geographical area (excluding the open seas) has been brought under the system of Protected Areas (PAs). Currently there are 97 National Parks and 508 Wildlife Sanctuaries in the major biogeographic zones of India. The total extent of PAs includes 5 designated as World Heritage Sites, 15 Biosphere Reserves and 6 internationally significant wetlands of India have been declared Ramsar sites under Ramsar convention.

Institutional efforts at in-situ conservation of endangered animals were initiated in the country about 30 years ago with the launching of Project Tiger. An all-India tiger census conducted in 1972 revealed that there were only 1,827 tigers in the country as against an estimated 40,000 at the turn of the century. Taking this as an indication of the deteriorating health of India’s wilderness, the Government of India launched the Project Tiger in 1973 with the support of WWF-International. 28 PAs in the country have been designated as Tiger Reserves. The 1993 census placed the tiger population at 3750.

The tiger has not been the only beneficiary a number of other endangered species such as the swamp deer, elephant, rhino and wild buffalo have received protection through Project Tiger. This programme has thus had a direct impact on conservation of biodiversity. The enhanced programmes introduced in the second phase of Project Tiger include the establishment of guidelines for tourism in tiger reserves, management of buffer areas, integration of local populations through eco-development programmes and establishment of Nature Interpretation Centres.

Indian holds the largest number of Asian elephants with 20,000 – 24,000 in the wild and nearly 3000 in captivity. The state of elephant in India was officially recognized in 1990 by the Government of India (GOI) when Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) set up a task force to prepare the baseline document for conservation project on the species. The task force identified several elephant reserves throughout the country. Gajatame or Project Elephant covering all the elephant states in country was formally launched in 1992.