ACCULTURATION, PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT (STRESS, DEPRESSION, SELF-ESTEEM), AND THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF JAMAICAN IMMIGRANT COLLEGE STUDENTS
By: Steve A. Buddington. Ph.D., M.S.W.
Ass. Professor of Social Welfare
Dillard University
Dept. of Social Sciences
Rosenwald Hall: Rm. 101K
2601 Gentilly Blvd
New Orleans, LA 71022
(504) 816-4178
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ABSTRACT
This study examined the relationships among acculturation, psychological adjustment (defined as stress, depression, and self-esteem) and academic achievement of 150 Jamaican immigrant undergraduate college students. Students who experienced less stress tended to achieve high academic standards as indicated by their grade point averages. The tenuous relationships among the study variables of acculturation, self-esteem, stress and grade point average, along with the socio-demographic variables, revealed that discrimination against immigrants of color impacted their psychological well-being and their academic achievement. Students’ acculturation was not related to their level or state of depression. Students married to Jamaicans (versus non-Jamaicans), who returned home to see their family/relatives and who continued to communicate with them tended to have exemplary academic records. How often students return home was found to be inversely related to acculturation. Also, those who were recent immigrants were found not to be highly acculturated.
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Introduction
Acculturation is the process by which ethnic and racial groups learn and began to participate in the cultural traditions, values, beliefs, assumptions and practices of the dominant or host culture (Berry, 1980; Landrine and Klonoff, 1994). Researchers in the United States have used acculturation in studying a number of ethnic groups. A search of the literature demonstrates that most of the studies completed between 1990 and 1995 have focused on Hispanics, e.g., Mexican-Americans and Cuban-Americans (Torres-Matrullo, 1976 and Mancaster, Chan, & Safady, 1992); Asians, e.g., Japanese-Americans, Chinese-Americans, Vietnamese- Americans (Strober, 1994; Rhee, 1993; Munoz, 1979 and Ima & Rumbault, 1989); and Native Americans (Hoffman, Dana, & Bolton, 1985).
Both Kamya (1997) and Turner (1994) found that limited attention has been given to the study of African-Americans or Afro-centric immigrants, for example, Africans, West Indians and Haitians. Since West Indian immigrants are not a homogenous group, studies cannot be generalized to include all West Indian groups (Nettleford, 1979). Consequently, the culture-specific orientation of Afro-centric immigrants (e.g., Jamaicans, Africans, and African Americans) needs to be addressed (Dyal & Dyal, 1981; Szapocznik & Kurtines, 1980; Padilla et. al., 1986).
Significance of the Study
Jamaican immigrants account for a large percent of the reported growth in the immigration population. Statistics indicate that between 1981 and 1991 there were approximately one million immigrants from the Caribbean, of which Jamaican immigrants comprised one-fourth (Brice-Baker, 1996).
Additionally, Jamaicans and Haitians who primarily migrate to New York and South Florida are among the largest number of newly arrived immigrants to the United States (Rumbaut, 1999). As such, the negative racial and discriminatory experiences of these immigrants upon their arrival in the U.S. necessitate some level of comprehension regarding their acculturation. Therein lies the significance or the aim of this study.
A specific aim of this study is to develop a conceptual or theoretical framework concerning the
acculturation and the impact on the ensuing mental health functioning of Jamaican immigrants. This framework will lead to recommendations for social work practice concerning Jamaican immigrants. The social work profession has contributed little or no knowledge to the understanding, conceptualization and testing of hypotheses on acculturation. This area has been dominated by studies performed by anthropologists, psychologists, educators and, to a lesser degree, sociologists.
The findings of this study could help practitioners, mental health educators and legislators/policy-makers to develop workable mental health-related models for practice and teaching that address the impact of acculturation Jamaican immigrants. Additionally, the findings could help conceptualize and quantify the meaning of acculturation specifically targeting Jamaican immigrants. Another aim of this study is to conceptualize acculturation from a psychological or mental health perspective, and finally to link research on acculturation to Jamaican immigrants currently experiencing acculturation to the lifestyle of the United States.
Acculturation and Jamaican Culture
Although Jamaica was first inhabited by the Arawak Indians, Jamaican culture primarily possesses the values, beliefs and attitudes of ancient African culture adapted to the New World (Chevannes, 1988). Jamaica languished under the oppressive dominance of the Spanish and then the English (Campbell, 1990). This extended domination has influenced every aspect of the Jamaican culture. During the process of British enslavement, the British culture attitudes concerning education, money and business were inculcated in the by Jamaicans. For example, the British’s attitude of delayed gratification and orientation toward the future so as to ensure a prosperous tomorrow have caused many Jamaicans to become very thrifty and self be sacrificing in the present (Brice-Baker, 1996).
Another aspect of British influence is found in the Jamaica’s “Victorian English.” Eighty percent of Jamaica’s language consists of English-derived words within an Afro-centric syntactical structure, while the remaining twenty percent is African-derived. Thus patois, which is primarily non-standard English is the most widely spoken language on the island. It was instrumental in the survival of the native Jamaicans during slavery (Spencer-Strachan, 1992; White-Davis, 1992), because it was the only common means of communication among the multi-tribal communities of the plantations. Without this patios the slaves would have been vulnerable to tribal conflicts and, more importantly, unable to organize their economic, social, fiscal and anti-slavery efforts. The organization of the Maroons (runaways slaves) into a powerful anti-slavery fighting force was a consequence of their ability to speak a common patios.
Secondly, the family structure has remained matriarchal (Chevannes, 1988), despite male dominance in the English Victorian family model (Brice-Baker, 1996).
Finally, Jamaica’s religious practices represent a multi-dimensional class structure. Members of the middle and elite classes are predominantly Protestant, mostly Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist and Anglican (Lowenthal, 1972; Spencer-Strachan, 1992).
In Jamaica, racial discrimination is not as important a determinant to ones degree of educational, political, economical or social success. Jamaicans are predominantly Afro-centric (Black), with a very small number of Euro-centric migrants.
However, it would be erroneous to argue that Jamaican culture is primarily transplanted from Africa. European domination during slavery and the breakdown of the family structure have contributed significantly to the breakdown of traditional African culture and the evolution of Jamaican culture.
According to Brice-Baker (1996), Sowell (1981), and Campbell (1990) it is precisely those Jamaicans who have acculturated to the European culture who succeed the best economically and educationally in the Caribbean and in the United States. How Jamaicans cope with racial discrimination, which they find shocking, cruel and inhumane appears to impact important aspects of an immigrant’s acculturation, such as education and employment.
Jamaican college educated immigrants are prepared to acculturate to life in the United States (Pryor, 1992), especially those with a strong work ethic as indicated by their willingness to accept delayed gratification. They work arduously in the belief that such education will lead to reasonable prominence as a professional, local leader, small property owner or landlord, or as a small businessman (Bryce-Laporte, 1972).
Jamaican Immigrants and Academic Achievement
Upward mobility in Jamaica can be achieved either through education or intermarriage with members of a wealthier class. Consequently, “achievement is emphasized, and education is valued as a means to an end, not as a goal in and of itself” (Brice-Baker, 1996, p. 91). Even when Jamaican parents are not educated, they expect their children and grandchildren to succeed academically (Davis & Proctor, 1989). This is evident when one considers that, among Black professionals, West Indians have been over-represented, in the areas of education and small business (Sowell, 1981). Also contributing to their success is an understanding of the value of hard work, which was learned from the British. The great value placed on diligence has engendered the work ethic of Jamaican immigrants (McGill & Pearce, 1996).
Methodology
There is a large population of Jamaican immigrant students attending Howard University. Some are student visa holders others are naturalized citizens. Permanent-resident immigrants or first- or second- generation Jamaican immigrants make up the vast majority (L. C. Toney, former president of the Caribbean Students Association & the Office of International Students Affairs, Howard University, personal communication, April, 9, 1999).
Sample and Procedure
The population studied was comprised of Jamaican students who had been residing in the United States for more than a year and who were enrolled at Howard University in Washington DC. A snowball sampling technique was used to select the 150 Jamaican immigrant students. Newly-arrived immigrants were thought not to have been exposed to the host culture long enough to experience a measurable degree of acculturation. Participants had no reported history of psychiatric problems, substance abuse or exposure to psychotropic medication. The selection criteria were used for control and homogeneity, acknowledging that this study would not be generalized to all Jamaican immigrant college students.
Instruments
The instrument packet was divided into five sections: (1) socio-demographic information and background factors; (2) the Behavioral Acculturation Scale (0.97, parallel form reliability (in both the English and Spanish versions) overall at 0.88, test-retest correlation at 0.96, and construct validity at 0.61); (3) Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale (reliability score of 0.93 and internal consistency of 0.99); (4) the Global Stress Measure (coefficient alpha reliability of at least 0.84 and test-retest correlation of 0.85); and (5) the Zung Self-rating Depression Scale (correlations of at least 0.75 and concurrent validity correlation values ranging from 0.59 to 0.75). Methodological verification can be found in the source publications from which the instruments were obtained.
Data Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to describe independent and background-intervening socio-demographic variables to characterize the participants of the study. Pearson Product-Moment Correlation coefficients were used to analyze the relationships among the study variables themselves as well as between the study variables and the socio-demographic variables.
Variables: Definitions
Jamaican immigrant college student: Each member of this study is a person whose birthplace is Jamaica, who is a permanent resident or naturalized citizen of the United States or in the United States on a student visa, presently attending college.
Acculturation: This term is defined as the
adoption of the cultural traits of another group or “the process involving the modification or replacement of the person’s native customs, habits, language, lifestyle, and value orientations” (Szapocznik, Scopetta, Kurtines, and Arnalde, 1978, p. 114).
Stress: Stress is produced when as life situations are appraised as demanding, threatening or otherwise negative and insufficient resources are available to change or adapt to these situations (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983).
Depression: This is a concept defined as a
Syndrome comprising coexisting signs and symptoms or as a disorder which has characteristic clusters and complexes of signs and symptoms which signify the presence of pathological disturbances or changes in four areas: somatic, psychological, psychomotor, and mood (Zung, 1965; Zung & Wonnacott, 1970; Zung, 1972).
Self-esteem: As defined by Rosenberg (1965), self-
esteem is a positive or negative attitude toward the self. Rosenberg’s Self–Esteem Scale (1965) will be used to assess the self-esteem levels of the immigrants in the study.
Academic achievement: This variable will be measured by grade point average.
Results/Findings
Description of Sample
Table I below presents the descriptive statistics
of the sample which characterize the participants of the study. Of the 150 participants in the study 79 (53%) were males and 71 (47%) were females. The vast majority 73 (49%) were holders of student visas. Thirty-six (24%) were United States citizens and 41 (27%) permanent residents. The majority (62 or 41.3%) of students migrated to the United States before or on their nineteenth birthdays, followed by those who migrated between the ages of 20 to 25 (48 or 32%). The ages of the students ranged from 18 to 48 years. More than half (65 or 43.3%) were born after 1977 and were older than 22 years old. The mean age was 27 years.
The majority of students (88 or 58.6%) came to United States to study, for the first time between 1994 and 1996. Of the total (150) 36 (24%) came to be with their families and/or to seek employment. Regarding income 76 (50.7%) of the students reported annual earnings of under $10,000; 39 (26%) reported $10,001 to $20,000; 24 (16%) reported earnings of $20,001 to $30,000; and only one person reported more than $40,000 in annual income.
Approximately 90 (60%) of the students reported that they were single (never married), 48 (32%) were married, and 12 (8%) reported having been divorced or separated. Of the 53 students
TABLE I
that were married or separated, 33 (62.2%) of their spouses were of the same nationality, and 20 (37.8%) were of a different nationality.
In examining parental education, the majority of both mothers and fathers completed high school and/or obtained a General Education Diploma (GED). Among fathers, 36 (24%) held GEDs; among mothers and 34 (22.7%) held GEDs. An equal number of fathers and mothers, 27 (18%) completed graduate or professional school. Additionally, 38 fathers (25.4%) and 40 mothers (26.6%) had Associate or Baccalaureate degrees. Also, 17 fathers (11.3%) and 27 mothers (18.0%) had at least attended college, but for less than two years. Only 32 (21.3%) of the fathers and 22 (14.7%) of the mothers did not complete high school. Thirteen years of education or the completion of some college was the average education level for both mothers and fathers.
In investigating the frequency of students returning to Jamaica, the data indicated that students returned home on an average of once a year. Sixty-one (40.7%) of the students stated that they did return to their homes, but not so often, only once a year. An equal number of students, 70 (46.6%) reported that they returned home twice or three times a year. The other 19 (12.7%) reported not returning home at all. Students indicated that they communicated with their families on an average of once every week. Of the 150 students surveyed 31 (20.7%) communicated every day with their families; 67 (44.7%) stated that they communicated with their families weekly; and 44 (29.3%) communicated at least once a month with their families. Eight students (5.3%) reported communicating only once a year with their families.
The average grade point average (GPA) was 3.1987, on a four-point scale. The lowest reported GPA was 2.0; the highest 4.0. The mean scores calculated were: acculturation, 62.8; self-esteem, 42.55; stress, 22.53; and depression 40.79. These scores, as shown in Table II below, indicated that the average participant surveyed was an academically good student, was moderately acculturated, had high self-esteem, low stress levels, and was not depressed (normal).