electronic supplementary material

Promoting sustainability in emerging economies via life cycle thinking

Comparative life cycle assessment and life cycle costing of lodging in the Himalaya

Silu Bhochhibhoya1 • Massimo Pizzol2 • Wouter M.J. Achten3 • Ramesh Kumar Maskey4 • Michela Zanetti1 • Raffaele Cavalli1

Received: 9 December 2016 / Accepted: 5 October 2016

© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2016

Responsible editor: Pomthong Malakul

1Department of Land, Environment, Agriculture and Forestry, University of Padova, Italy

2Department of Development and Planning, Aalborg University, Denmark

3Institute for Environmental Management and Land-Use Planning, Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Belgium

4School of Engineering, Kathmandu University, Nepal

 Silu Bhochhibhoya

,

Appendix 1

Parameters used to quantify the amount of building materials

Building Components / Modern / Semi modern / Traditional
Thickness (m) / Density / Volume (m3)
Wall / Wooden plank / 0.05 / 670.00 / 2.75 / 2.08 / 1.12
Plywood / 0.01 / 6.18 / 18.81 / 12.85 / 4.99
Glasswool / 0.05 / 32.00 / 5.50 / 0.00 / 0.00
Mud / T=0.05
SM, M=0.01 / 1906.00 / 4.25 / 2.60 / 4.41
Stone / T=0.55
SM,M=0.5 / 2610.00 / 169.89 / 104.16 / 44.12
Polystyrene / 0.02 / 28.00 / 7.32 / 0.00 / 0.00
Enamel / - / 1090.00 / 0.04 / 0.03 / 0.01
Ordinary nails / 1.08 / 7.87 / 0.85 / 0.35
Cement / 0.01 / 2162.00 / 0.15 / 0.09 / 0.03
Roof / Wooden joist / 0.09 / 670.00 / 9.80 / 3.32 / 3.33
CGI` / 4.71 / 177.26 / 59.95 / 59.75
Roofing nails / 3.64 / 2.70 / 1.23 / 1.23
Window / Wooden frame / 0.55 / 670.00 / 0.34 / 0.12
Glass / 0.04 / 10.00 / 122.17 / 43.25 / 20.45
Door / Wooden door / 0.10 / 670.00 / 0.15 / 0.13 / 0.15
Plywood door / 0.77 / 6.18 / 0.73 / 0.28
Floor / Wooden joist / 0.09 / 670.00 / 8.45 / 5.22 / 2.11
Wooden plank / 0.05 / 670.00 / 10.52 / 6.50 / 2.62
Ceiling / Wooden joist / 0.09 / 670.00 / 8.45 / 5.22 / 2.11
Plywood / 0.01 / 6.18 / 5.90 / 3.65 / 1.47
Ladder / Wood / 0.05 / 670.00 / 0.08 / 0.11 / 0.08
Corridor / Wooden plank / 0.05 / 670.00 / 2.50 / 1.10 / 1.23
Wooden joist / 0.09 / 670.00 / 0.69 / 0.25 / 0.30
Pillar / Cement / 2162.00 / 0.12 / 0.00 / 0.00
Sand / 1550.00 / 0.70 / 0.00 / 0.00
Rod / 7850.00 / 0.03 / 0.00 / 0.00

Appendix 2

Emission factor for the different fuel types in Nepal

(Bhattacharya and Salam 2002)

Cooking options / Efficiency values selected (%) / Emission factor values selected
CO2 (kg/kWh) / CH4 (kg/kWh) / N20 (kg/kWh)
Traditional stoves (Wood) / 11 / 0.37 / 0.0018 / 0.00001
Traditional stoves (dung) / 10.6 / 0.35 / 0.001 / 0.00001
Improved stoves (Wood) / 24 / 0.31 / 0.0014 / 0.00001
Nepalese two- pot metallic / 0.35 / 0.0013 / 0.00001
Improved stoves (dung) / 19 / 0.36 / 0.001 / 0.00001
LPG / 55 / 0.384 / 0.00007 / 0.000006
Kerosene / 45 / 0.559 / 0.0001 / 0.00001

Appendix 3

Replacement intervals during the period of 50 years

Materials / Typical replacement intervals (years) / Number of replacement over 50 years
CGI / 30 / 1
Roofing Nail / 30 / 1
Wooden plank / 100+ / -
Wooden Window / 50 / -
Plywood wall / 15-30 / 2
Plywood door / 15-30 / 1
Plywood ceiling / 15-30 / 1
Glass wool / 25-30 / 1
Polystyrene / 10-15 / 2
Stone / 100+ / -

Appendix 4

Sensitivity analysis of different parameters

LCA / Modern / Semi-Modern / Traditional
Parameters / Unit / CS / OS / M&RS / CS / OS / M&RS / CS / OS / M&RS
25 years
Global warming (GWP100a) / kg CO2 eq / 2.5E-01 / 1.0E+01 / 2.3E-01 / 1.0E-01 / 5.2E+00 / 1.3E-01 / 1.2E-01 / 8.7E+00 / 2.0E-01
Ozone layer
depletion (ODP) / kg CFC-11 eq / 2.1E-08 / 6.2E-06 / 1.7E-08 / 8.5E-09 / 1.9E-06 / 1.0E-08 / 1.0E-08 / 5.2E-07 / 1.6E-08
Photochemical
oxidation / kg C2H4 eq / 1.7E-04 / 3.7E-03 / 1.5E-04 / 8.0E-05 / 1.4E-03 / 8.0E-05 / 8.2E-05 / 9.6E-04 / 1.1E-04
Acidification / kg SO2 eq / 1.9E-03 / 5.9E-02 / 1.6E-03 / 7.8E-04 / 2.0E-02 / 9.1E-04 / 8.9E-04 / 1.0E-02 / 1.3E-03
Eutrophication / kg PO4--- eq / 3.5E-03 / 1.5E-02 / 3.9E-03 / 9.8E-04 / 5.7E-03 / 2.7E-03 / 1.6E-03 / 5.0E-03 / 5.0E-03
Particulate matter formation / kg PM10 eq / 1.3E-03 / 1.7E-02 / 1.2E-03 / 5.1E-04 / 5.7E-03 / 7.4E-04 / 6.0E-04 / 4.0E-03 / 1.2E-03
100 years
Global warming (GWP100a) / kg CO2 eq / 6.3E-02 / 1.0E+01 / 5.7E-02 / 2.5E-02 / 5.2E+00 / 3.3E-02 / 2.9E-02 / 8.7E+00 / 4.9E-02
Ozone layer
depletion (ODP) / kg CFC-11 eq / 5.4E-09 / 6.2E-06 / 4.3E-09 / 2.1E-09 / 1.9E-06 / 2.6E-09 / 2.6E-09 / 5.2E-07 / 4.0E-09
Photochemical
oxidation / kg C2H4 eq / 4.3E-05 / 3.7E-03 / 3.6E-05 / 2.0E-05 / 1.4E-03 / 2.0E-05 / 2.0E-05 / 9.6E-04 / 2.8E-05
Acidification / kg SO2 eq / 4.6E-04 / 5.9E-02 / 4.0E-04 / 2.0E-04 / 2.0E-02 / 2.3E-04 / 2.2E-04 / 1.0E-02 / 3.1E-04
Eutrophication / kg PO4--- eq / 8.8E-04 / 1.5E-02 / 9.8E-04 / 2.4E-04 / 5.7E-03 / 6.8E-04 / 4.0E-04 / 5.0E-03 / 1.3E-03
Particulate matter formation / kg PM10 eq / 3.3E-04 / 1.7E-02 / 3.0E-04 / 1.3E-04 / 5.7E-03 / 1.8E-04 / 1.5E-04 / 4.0E-03 / 2.9E-04
50% occupancy
Global warming (GWP100a) / kg CO2 eq / 2.0E-01 / 1.6E+01 / 1.8E-01 / 8.0E-02 / 8.3E+00 / 1.1E-01 / 9.4E-02 / 1.4E+01 / 1.6E-01
Ozone layer
depletion (ODP) / kg CFC-11 eq / 1.7E-08 / 1.0E-05 / 1.4E-08 / 6.8E-09 / 3.1E-06 / 8.2E-09 / 8.2E-09 / 8.3E-07 / 1.3E-08
Photochemical
oxidation / kg C2H4 eq / 1.4E-04 / 5.9E-03 / 1.2E-04 / 6.4E-05 / 2.2E-03 / 6.4E-05 / 6.5E-05 / 1.5E-03 / 8.8E-05
Acidification / kg SO2 eq / 1.5E-03 / 9.5E-02 / 1.3E-03 / 6.3E-04 / 3.1E-02 / 7.3E-04 / 7.1E-04 / 1.7E-02 / 1.0E-03
Eutrophication / kg PO4--- eq / 2.8E-03 / 2.4E-02 / 3.1E-03 / 7.8E-04 / 9.1E-03 / 2.2E-03 / 1.3E-03 / 8.0E-03 / 4.0E-03
Photochemical
oxidant formation / kg NMVOC / 1.6E-03 / 6.2E-02 / 1.3E-03 / 7.1E-04 / 2.3E-02 / 7.3E-04 / 7.4E-04 / 1.9E-02 / 9.8E-04
Discount and Inflation rate
Global warming (GWP100a) / kg CO2 eq / 1.1E-01 / 1.0E+01 / 1.1E-01 / 4.0E-02 / 5.0E+00 / 8.0E-02 / 7.0E-02 / 8.7E+00 / 1.3E-02
Ozone layer depletion (ODP) / kg CFC-11 eq / 1.1E-08 / 6.2E-06 / 8.6E-09 / 4.3E-09 / 1.9E-06 / 5.1E-09 / 5.1E-09 / 5.2E-07 / 7.9E-09
Photochemical
oxidation / kg C2H4 eq / 8.7E-05 / 3.7E-03 / 7.3E-05 / 4.0E-05 / 1.4E-03 / 4.0E-05 / 4.1E-05 / 9.6E-04 / 5.5E-05
Acidification / kg SO2 eq / 9.3E-04 / 5.9E-02 / 7.9E-04 / 3.9E-04 / 2.0E-02 / 4.5E-04 / 4.4E-04 / 1.0E-02 / 6.3E-04
Eutrophication / kg PO4--- eq / 1.8E-03 / 1.5E-02 / 2.0E-03 / 4.9E-04 / 5.7E-03 / 1.4E-03 / 8.0E-04 / 5.0E-03 / 2.5E-03
Particulate matter formation / kg PM10 eq / 6.7E-04 / 1.7E-02 / 6.0E-04 / 2.6E-04 / 5.7E-03 / 3.7E-04 / 3.0E-04 / 4.0E-03 / 5.8E-04
LCC
25 years / Economic / 3.3E-01 / 1.2E-01 / 3.4E+00 / 1.2E-01 / 5.7E+00 / 1.3E+00 / 1.1E-01 / 3.4E+00 / 1.0E+00
100 years / Economic / 8.0E-02 / 1.8E+01 / 8.4E-01 / 3.0E-02 / 5.7E+00 / 3.2E-01 / 3.0E-02 / 3.4E+00 / 2.6E-01
50% occupancy / Economic / 2.6E-01 / 3.0E+01 / 2.7E+00 / 9.0E-02 / 9.2E+00 / 1.0E+00 / 9.0E-02 / 5.4E+00 / 8.3E-01
Discount & Inflation / Economic / 1.6E-01 / 8.6E+00 / 1.3E+00 / 6.0E-02 / 2.7E+00 / 5.2E-01 / 6.0E-02 / 3.4E+00 / 4.1E-01

*CS= Construction stage, OS= Operational stage, M&RS= Maintenance and Replacement stage

1