6LEARNING AND PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT
Chapter Scan
This chapter is the second chapter on learning and behavior, and examines external influences on behavior and their relationship to performance. Learning in organizations is facilitated through reward, punishment, and extinction. In addition, Bandura's social learning theory describes how individuals model their behavior after others. The challenge in examining the performance of an individual lies in finding accurate measurement tools. Goal-setting programs provide one avenue for the link between effort and achievement. Strategies for rewarding behavior and dealing with poor behavior are provided.
LEARNING OBJECTIVEs
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1.Define learning, reinforcement, punishment, extinction, and goal setting.
2.Distinguish between classical and operant conditioning.
3.Explain the use of positive and negative consequences of behavior in strategies of reinforcement and punishment.
4.Identify the purposes of goal setting and five characteristics of effective goals.
5.Describe effective strategies for giving and receiving performance feedback.
6.Compare individual and team-oriented reward systems.
7.Describe strategies for correcting poor performance.
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Chapter 6: Learning and Performance Management
KEY TERMS
Chapter 6 introduces the following key terms:
learning
classical conditioning
operant conditioning
positive consequences
negative consequences
reinforcement
punishment
extinction
task-specific self-efficacy
goal setting
management by objectives (MBO)
performance appraisal
consensus
distinctiveness
consistency
mentoring
THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I.THINKING AHEAD: Breaking the Compensation Paradigm
II.LEARNING IN ORGANIZATIONS
This chapter also addresses motivation and behavior, but differs from the previous chapter in that this chapter focuses on the external causes of behavior.
Learning and motivation are related because learning changes behavior as it is acquired through experience. Henry Ford once said, "anyone who stops learning is old, whether at twenty or eighty. Anyone who keeps learning stays young. The greatest thing in life is to keep your mind young."
A.Classical Conditioning
The first theory of learning developed in the early 1900s. Classical conditioning is pairing an unconditioned (natural) stimulus with a conditioned (learned) stimulus to elicit an unconditional (natural) response. Most students have heard of Pavlov's research with dogs. They may not be aware that the collaborative efforts between the Russian scientist and Walter Cannon lead to the application of the ideas in the United States.
B.Operant Conditioning
The second class of learning uses positive or negative consequences for modification of behavior. Operant conditioning is based on the notion that behavior is a function of its consequences.
C.The Strategies of Reinforcement, Punishment, and Extinction
1.Reinforcement
Both positive and negative consequences are related to reinforcement. Positive consequences are results that individuals find attractive or pleasurable. In contrast, negative consequences are results that individuals find unattractive or aversive. Positive reinforcement results from applying positive consequences when desired behavior occurs. Negative reinforcement results from withholding negative consequences when desired behavior occurs. Schedules for reinforcement are either continuous or intermittent. Intermittent schedules can be fixed or variable ratio, or fixed or variable interval.
2.Punishment
There are two approaches to punishment, or the elimination of undesirable behavior. Either applying negative consequences or withholding positive consequences can result in similar outcomes.
3.Extinction
Extinction is the attempt to weaken an undesirable behavior by attaching no consequences to it. Extinction is most successful when combined with positive reinforcement of desired behavior.
D.Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Bandura’s social learning theory adds a component of interaction as a learning approach. This theory states that people learn by modeling their behavior through the observation of others. Bandura’s theory also emphasizes the importance of task-specific self-efficacy, or the belief in one’s ability to satisfactorily perform a particular task, as a positive force for learning.
E.Learning and Personality Differences
Not all approaches are appropriate for all personalities. For example, introverts perform better with quiet, concentrated periods of time, while extraverted individuals need to express themselves and exchange ideas with others. Preferences for information gathering and decision making differ with personality as well.
III.GOAL SETTING AT WORK
The process of establishing desired results that guide and direct behavior is goal setting.
A.Characteristics of Effective Goals
To be effective, goals should be specific, measurable, challenging, realistic, and time- bound.
B.Increasing Work Motivation and Task Performance
Goals can be used to increase performance, as studies indicate that challenging goals result in higher performance. The three behavioral aspects of enhancing performance motivation through goal setting are employee participation, supervisory commitment, and useful performance feedback.
C.Reducing Role Stress of Conflicting and Confusing Expectations
Goal setting reduces stress by clarifying the taskrole expectations. This may be attributable to improved communication between supervisors and employees.
D.Improving the Accuracy and Validity of Performance Evaluation
The third major function of goal setting is to improve the accuracy and validity of performance evaluation. One of the best known methods is management by objectives, (MBO), which is a goal-setting program based on interaction and negotiation between employees and managers.
IV.PERFORMANCE: A KEY CONSTRUCT
Performance is closely associated with the concept of task accomplishment. Good performance depends on both effort and outcomes.
A.Defining Performance
Employees must understand exactly what is expected of them if they are to perform well. Consequently, organizations must first accurately define what they mean by “good performance”, set standards for that performance, and communicate that information clearly to employees. Performance appraisal is the evaluation of a person's performance.
B.Measuring Performance
In an optimal situation, the measurements of performance assess actual performance. This is difficult because of our level of refinement of performance appraisal tools. Performance appraisal systems should include analyses of the reliability and validity of the instrument chosen for measurement.
C.Performance Feedback: A Communication Challenge
Communicating useful performance feedback that employees will accept and learn from poses a difficult challenge for nearly all managers. Focusing on specific statements and changeable behaviors enhances the likelihood of constructive feedback experiences for both supervisor and employees.
C.Developing People and Enhancing Careers
The most important aspect of performance appraisal is the continual development of employees. Unfortunately, too many appraisals are used singularly for salary decisions, and only provided once a year, begrudgingly. Dr. Deming, a leader in the quality movement, advocated the elimination of performance feedback, in part because of our misuse of the concept.
D.Key Characteristics of an Effective Appraisal System
There are five characteristics related to effectiveness of performance appraisal – validity, reliability, responsiveness, flexibility, and equitability.
V.REWARDING PERFORMANCE
A.A Key Organizational Decision Process
Individuals observe closely how others are treated in reward and punishment decisions. These decisions affect the organizational culture, as well as the motivation and performance of others.
B.Individual versus Team Reward Systems
Many organizations are conscious of the competition between individual rewards and group efforts. Individual incentives can improve motivation and performance, but may generate excessive or unwanted internal competition. Team reward systems solve problems caused by individual competitive behavior, but often do not account for individual contributions.
C.The Power of Earning
When there is little relationship between performance and rewards, people often begin to believe they are entitled to rewards regardless of how they perform, which illustrates the concept of entitlement.
VI.CORRECTING POOR PERFORMANCE
If poor performance is not attributable to work design or organizational process problems, then attention should be focused on the employee. The problem may lie in (1) some aspect of the person's relationship to the organization or supervisor, (2) some area of the employee's personal life, or (3) a training or developmental deficiency.
A.Attribution and Performance Management
Attribution is related to performance measurement because supervisors attribute behavior and performance to either internal or external causes. Kelley proposed that individuals make attributions based on information gathered in the form of three informational cues: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Consensus is the extent to which peers in the same situation behave the same way. Distinctiveness is the degree to which the person behaves the same way in other situations. Consistency refers to the frequency of a particular behavior over time.
B.Coaching, Counseling, and Mentoring
Important supervisory responsibilities include mentoring, coaching and counseling. Mentoring is a relationship that encourages development and career enhancement for people moving through the career cycle. Chapter 17 addresses mentoring in greater detail.
VII.MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IS A KEY TASK
VIII.LOOKING BACK: Does Employee Ownership Really Pay Off?
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Learning is a change in behavior acquired through experience.
The operant conditioning approach to learning states that behavior is a function of positive and negative consequences.
Reinforcement is used to develop desirable behavior; punishment and extinction are used to decrease undesirable behavior.
Bandura's social learning theory suggests that task-specific self-efficacy is important to effective learning.
Goal setting improves work motivation and task performance, reduces role stress, and improves the accuracy and validity of performance appraisal.
Performance appraisals help organizations develop employees and make decisions about them.
Making accurate attributions about the behavior of others is an essential prerequisite to correcting poor performance.
High-quality performance should be rewarded and poor performance should be corrected.
Mentoring is a relationship for encouraging development and career enhancement for people moving through the career cycle.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: Suggested Answers
1. Define the terms learning, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
Learning is a change in behavior acquired through experience. Reinforcement is the bestowing of positive consequences or withholding of negative consequences to develop desired behavior. Punishment, in contrast, bestows negative consequences or withholds positive consequences to eliminate or weaken undesirable behavior. Extinction is the attempt to weaken a behavior by attaching no consequences to it.
2. What are positive and negative consequences in shaping behavior? How should they be managed? Explain the value of extinction as a strategy.
Managers have access to useful positive and negative reinforcement strategies to assist employees in their pursuit of goals in the workplace. Consequence-related strategies should be matched to the specific personalities and situations involved. Extinction is a low intrusion approach to behavior modification, and an appropriate strategy for situations that allow for patience and time.
3. How can task-specific self-efficacy be enhanced? What are the differences in the way introverted and extroverted and intuitive and sensing people learn?
Task-specific self-efficacy can be enhanced through (1) performance accomplishments, (2) vicarious experiences, (3) verbal persuasion, or (4) emotional arousal. Introverts need quiet time to study, concentrate, and reflect on what they are learning. They think best when they are alone. Extroverts need to interact with other people, learning through the process of expressing themselves and exchanging ideas with others. An intuitive thinker prefers to analyze data and information, looking for the meaning behind the analysis and focusing on the big picture. A sensing feeler prefers to learn through interpersonal involvement and focuses on details and practical applications.
4. What are the five characteristics of well-developed goals? Why is feedback on goal progress important?
Well-developed goals are specific, challenging, measurable, time-bound, and prioritized.
Goal acceptance is thought to lead to goal commitment and then to goal accomplishment.
Feedback helps employees assess how well their efforts are leading to goal accomplishment.
5. What are the purposes of conducting performance appraisals? Who should appraise performance? Why?
Accurate appraisals help supervisors fulfill their dual roles as evaluators and coaches. The major functions of performance appraisals are to give employees feedback on performance, to identify the employees' developmental needs, to make promotion and reward decisions, to make demotion and termination decisions, and to develop information relevant to the organization's selection and placement decisions. Multiple sources of appraisal data should be used: supervisor, self, peers, and employees.
6. What are the two possible attributions of poor performance? What are the implications of each?
Poor performance may be attributed to the person or the situation. If poor performance is attributed to the person, interventions such as training, counseling, or disciplinary action may be appropriate. If poor performance is attributed to the situation, an intervention designed to remove situational constraints on performance may be appropriate.
7. How can managers and supervisors best provide useful performance feedback?
Feedback should be specific and based on observed behavior. The behavior in question should be controllable by the individual, and both leader and follower should have ample time to prepare for the feedback session.
8. How do mentors and peers help people develop and enhance their careers?
Both provide information sharing, career strategizing, job-related feedback, emotional support, and friendship. The key in both mentor and peer relationships is mutual trust.
DISCUSSION and communication QUESTIONS: Suggested Answers
1. Which learning approach – the behavioral approach or Bandura's social learning theory – do you find more appropriate for people?
This answer may have to do with how much importance students place on the task-specific self-efficacy aspect of Bandura’s theory. It is obviously a more complex set of dynamics to consider. Students can be encouraged to consider the type of learning (e.g., level of complexity) as another variable.
2. Given your personality type, how do you learn best? Do you miss learning some things because of how they are taught?
Students will often be able to determine what they don't like about learning opportunities more readily than they can identify how they would learn more comfortably. It is interesting to ask students whether grading completely through group grades would change their view of individual studying and learning. Many college classes are taught by NTs, who use a particular style. Have students discuss what the NT teaching/learning style is, and how it affects other learning styles.
3. What goals do you set for yourself at work? In your personal life? Will you know if you achieve them?
Encourage students to discuss this question beyond the obvious, "complete a business degree." They can evaluate their goals using the characteristics of effective goals, and discuss how they get feedback on their goal progress.
4. If a conflict occurred between your self-evaluation and the evaluation given to you by your supervisor or instructor, how would you respond? What specifically would you do? What have you learned from your supervisor or instructor during the last reporting period?
The key is to gather as much information as possible about the other's position. A key in approaching differing views is preparation. Suggest students should respond only after thinking through the information for a day or so. Students can use their knowledge of the perceptual process to analyze this question.
5. What rewards are most important to you? How hard are you willing to work to receive them?
Encourage students to develop a gradual rating of the rewards. Not all of the rewards are necessarily worth the cost. They may have some ethical issues related to high performers. The alternative experiential exercise at the end of Chapter 10, Who Works Saturday Night, compares rewards and how badly individuals want rewards versus balance in their lives.
6. Prepare a memo detailing the consequences of behavior in your work or university environment (e.g., grades, awards, suspensions, and scholarships). Include in your memo your classification of these consequences as positive or negative. Should your organization or university change how it applies these consequences?
In response to the final question (Should your organization or university change how it applies these consequences?) students should provide support, based on material from the chapter, for why changes should or should not occur.
7. Develop an oral presentation about the most current management practices in employee rewards and performance management. Find out what at least four different companies are doing in this area. Be prepared to discuss their fit with the text materials.
Based on the fit between current management practices identified and text materials, students can discuss how successful they believe the various management practices will be.
8. Interview a manager or supervisor who is responsible for completing performance appraisals on people at work. Ask the manager which aspects of performance appraisal and the performance appraisal interview process are most difficult and how he or she manages these difficulties. Include the aspects of his or her job that enable the manager to meet these three different needs.
This is also a good opportunity for students to share experiences (both positive and negative) that they have had as employees being appraised. The contrasting perspectives of the managers/supervisors and the students (as employees) should provide for some interesting discussion.
ETHICS QUESTIONS: Suggested Answers
1. Suppose a team of behavioral experts was asked to enhance the motivation of military personnel to kill the enemy. Is this request ethical? Is it socially desirable? Should the team accept the assignment? Explain.
The dilemma should be confronted long before the action, and upon entering the organization, the task should be presented so that individuals with moral principle disagreements with the task would have an option to reject the assignment.
2. Suppose the organization you work for simply assigns employees their task goals without consulting them. Is this an ethical problem? Should the organization consult its employees? What are the consequences of not consulting them?