1. What City Functioned As the Center for the Byzantine Empire?

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ROME IN THE EAST

THE ART OF BYZANTIUM

TEXT PAGES 324-355

1. What city functioned as the center for the Byzantine Empire?

Constantinople, founded on the site of the ancient Greek city Byzantium.

2. Who in the Byzantine world was considered to be Christ’s vicar on earth?

The Byzantine emperor.

How did this belief affect the political and religious structure of the Eastern Empire?

The emperors ruled in both realms, sharing power with neither senate nor church council, combining church and state. The imperial court was an image of the Kingdom of Heaven.

EARLY BYZANTNE ART (527-726)

1. List four features that Justinian adopted from the Roman past as seen in the Barberini Ivory (FIG. 12-1):

a. Dynamic twisting poses of both horse and rider.

b. Personifications of bountiful Earth and palm-bearing Victory.

c. The barbarians at the base bearing tribute and seeking clemency.

d. A Roman soldier bearing a statuette of Victory.

What feature makes this image Christian and not pagan?

The uppermost panel showing two angels holding a youthful image of Christ carrying a cross.

2. In what ways does the ivory carving St. Michael the Archangel (FIG. 12-2) reflect Classical prototypes?

The prototype of winged Michael must have been the pagan winged Victory. The flowing drapery revealing the body’s shape, the delicately detailed wings, and the facial type and hairstyle indicate the artist was versed in classical art.

What new compositional devices are used?

Michael seems to float in front of an architectural setting, rather than existing spatially within it.

What is the meaning of the lobe surmounted by the cross?

It is an orb of power.

3. Give the following information about the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople:

Meaning of its name: The Church of Holy Wisdom.

Patron: Saint Michael the Archangel.

Architects: Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus (a mathematician and a physicist).

Brief description of plan and structure: A huge dome 108 feet in diameter, rising to 180 feet above the ground, is the oldest part of the church (although the dome was replaced once and repaired twice). Huge buttresses were added to the original design at some point, and four Turkish minarets were added after the Ottoman conquest of 1453. The exterior is plain and unpretentious, disguising the massive scale, and contrasts with the once even more sumptuous interior.

How the dome support differed from earlier domed buildings: It is a dome resting on a second larger dome that becomes a square at the ground through the use of pendentives, curved triangles cut into the bottom dome, which become arches whose planes bound a square.

What was the principal light source? A ring of windows surrounding the dome’s base, giving the illusion that the dome is resting on the light.

What was the primary decoration in the dome? Light reflecting off gilded tesserae and a variety of beautifully colored marbles and stones.

4. How does a squinch differ from a pendentive? Draw sketches if you like. Squinches are arches, corbels, or lintels that bridge the corners of the supporting wallsand form an octagon within a square. A pendentive is a curved triangle that when joined with other three pendentives border a square (or cube).

5. Briefly describe the plan and structure of San Vitale at Ravenna (FIGS. 12-6 to 12-9):

It has a central, octagonal plan like Justinian’s churches in Constantinople. The plan features two concentric octagons. The dome-covered inner octagon rises above the surrounding octagon and lights the interior with clerestory lighting. Eight large piers alternate with curved, columned exedrae in the central space, pushing outward into the surrounding two-story ambulatory. The exedrae integrate the inner and outer spaces. A cross-vaulted choir runs just before the apse at an oblique angle to the narthex, which may have been placed to run along a street.

6. Who were Justinian and Theodora and what is the subject of the mosaics in which they are represented in the apse of San Vitale (FIGS. 12-10 and 12-11)? Justinian and Theodora’s reign marked the end of the Late Roman Empire and the beginning of the Byzantine Empire. He drove the Ostrogoths out of Italy, the Vandals from the African provinces, the Bulgars out of the northern frontier, and held theSasanians on the eastern border, thus briefly restoring the Roman Empire’s range. Theodora was an actress born in a low family, and before she and Justinian could be married, the laws had to be rewritten allowing senators to marry actresses (often prostitutes). She was known to be quite intelligent and became Justinian’s adviser, acquiring vast power and prestige throughout the empire.

Although neither of them ever visited Ravenna, the mosaics in San Vitale show them lining up with their retinues to take part in the Eucharist at that church, Justinian carrying the bread and Theodora the wine.

What does Justinian's halo signify?

His association with Christ, who is also haloed and who also wears purple robes. The dual political and religious role of the Byzantine emperors is emphasized.

What explanation is given for the curious overlapping of Justinian and Maximianus?

Each figure seems to be partly in front of and behind the other, representing the balance of imperial and church powers.

7. Explain the meaning of the following symbols from the apse mosaic of Sant' Apollinare in Classe (FIG. 12-12):

Jeweled cross

Symbol of the transfigured Christ, possibly representing the cross Constantine erected on Calvary.

Three sheep below the cross

The three disciples who accompanied Christ to the foot of the Mount of theTransfiguration.

Twelve sheep

Possibly the congregation under the protection of Saint Apollinaris.

Compare the mosaic from Sant’Apolliinare with that from the mausoleum of Galla Placidia (FIG. 11-15) and describe the stylistic changes that have occurred.

By the time of Sant’Apollinare, realistic depiction of a landscapes and animals has been surpassed by telling of the story in terms of symbols. The identical sheep are lined up side by side and do not overlap (contrasting the illusionistic, obliquely-shown sheep of Galla Placidia) to avoid referencing the three-dimensional space of the material world and physical reality. Shapes are not defined by volume but are flat silhouettes.

8. What is the subject of the apse mosaic from the monastery of St. Catherine on Mt.Sinai (FIG. 12-13)?

The Transfiguration of Jesus.

List three stylistic features of the mosaic.

a. Christ is haloed in a mandorla, an aureole of light.

b. Landscape and architecture has been replaced by a depthless field of gold, with the figures in isolation from each other.

c. The figures are ambiguously placed with relation to the “ground” line and their bodies cast no shadows, enhancing their supernatural and mystical appearance.

9. In what significant way does the representation of the Ascension in the Rabbula gospels (FIG. 12-15) differ from biblical accounts of the event?

The presence of Mary is never mentioned in the Bible.

What might this difference say about attitudes toward Mary?

Mary is centrally located beneath Christ, emphasizing her prominent position in the church and is an early example of the important part she will play in Eastern and Western later Christian art.

10. What was the significance of icons in Byzantine worship?

Small paintings of Christ, Mary, and saints were very popular (but not universally accepted) during the Byzantine empire. They were considered a personal, intimate medium for spiritual transaction with holy figures; sometimes they were ascribedmiracles and healing powers.

What effect did the Iconoclast controversy have on the visual arts?

After the Byzantine Empire was brought down by the Arabs, causing some to think it was God’s punishment for worshipping idols, the emperor Leo III prohibited the use of images, and for more than a century Byzantine artists produced little new religious figurative art. Only symbols and stylized floral, animal, and architectural motifs were created.

MIDDLE BYZANTINE ART (843-1204)

Define or identify the following:

Pantocrator

“Ruler of all,” Christ as ruler and judge of heaven and earth.

Theotokos

“Bearer of God,” i.e. Mary.

Triptych

A three-paneled painting or altarpiece.

1. What is significant about the including of the image of the Virgin and Child in Hagia Sophia in the 9th century (FIG. 12-17)?

The fact that the image is in the Hagia Sophia shows the triumph of the iconophiles over the iconoclasts.

List two contradictory stylistic features contained in the mosaic:

a. The angled throne, shown perspectivally.

b. The robes of Christ, flattened and schematic.

2. List three characteristics typical of Middle Byzantine churches.

a. It is a domed cube, with the dome rising above the square on a kind of cylinder or drum.

b. The churches are small, vertical, and high-shouldered.

c. The churches have more elaborate exterior wall surfaces with decorative patterns, influenced by Islamic architecture.

3. Describe two features that identify St. Mark's in Venice as a Byzantine building.

a. It had a cruciform plan capped by a central dome over the crossing and four other domes over the four equal arms of the Greek cross.

b. Light enters through a row of windows at the bases of all five domes, like at Hagia Sophia, and illuminates mosaics.

4. Give an example of Byzantine influence in the mosaics of the Norman Kings at Monreale (FIG. 12-24)?

The mosaics show the mix of divine and political power, with King William II offering a church to Mary and being blessed by Christ, reminiscent of the mosaics of Justinian and Theodora at San Vitale.

The plan of the church shows western influence. What type of plan is it?

It is a basilica, organized longitudinally, with only one vault at the apse.

5. Compare the image of Empress Irene from the Pala d’Oro (FIG. 12-25) with the mosaic of Thedora from San Vitale (FIG. 12-11). What characteristics identify them both as Byzantine?

The frontal pose, flat, patterned clothing, and halo.

6. The range of styles during the Second Byzantine Golden Age is seen in the comparison of the mosaics of Daphni (FIG. 12-22) and the frescoes of Nerezi (FIG. 12-27). Briefly describe the style of each.

Daphni:

The mosaic is a combination of the more abstract and formalistic Byzantine style and the painterly Hellenestic style. The figures are more organic and stand with classical grace and simplicity, although there are strong linear patterns in the Byzantine style, with the widespread gold background.

Nerezi:

This is a more natural representation than the Daphni mosaic. Passionate grief is captured in poses, gestures, and facial expressions. It is set in a suggestion of a landscape that differs from the depthless gold used in most Byzantine churches, and the figures are fully modeled.

7. What earlier style was revived in the so-called Paris Psalter (FIG. 12-28)?

Greco-Roman classicism.

List three features that illustrate this derivation:

a. A rocky landscape with a town in the background, as is often seen in Pompeianmurals.

b. Allegorical figures are present beside David, such as Melody.

c. The classical poses and realistic modeled figures presented in space rather than as flat cutouts.

And one that does not:

The male figure, who, while allegorical, represents the mountain of Bethlehem.

8. What Byzantine characteristics are apparent in the icon called The Vladimir Madonna (FIG. 12-29)?

a. Stylized abstraction of robe folds and patterns that encloses both figures.

b. The Virgin’s long straight nose and small mouth

c. The flat silhouettes against a golden ground.

LATE BYZANTINE ART (1204-1453)

Define or identify the following:

Anastasis

Christ trampling Satan and his prison house of Hell, while raising Adam and Eve from their tombs.

Iconostasis

An icon stand that supports tiers of painted devotional images.

1. List three characteristics that differentiate late Byzantine churches from Middle Byzantine examples.

a. The number of domes and drums increased, and their groupings became more dramatic.

b. Elevations became narrower and steeper.

c. Eaves curved rhythmically and brick patterns decorated the exterior walls.

2. What stylistic features of the Annunciation from Ohrid, Macedonia (FIG. 12-33) that link the image to the Byzantine style as seen of the fresco from the chapel of the Church of Christ in Chora in Istanbul (FIG. 12-31)?

Highly simplified architectural props, inconsistent perspective, and conventional gestures of the figures.

3. List three hallmarks of the style of Andrei Rublyev.

a. Subtle linear play in drapery.

b. Intensely vivid, saturated, and pure color which defines the forms.

c. Nearly identical figures who are distinguished only by their garment colors.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the development of pictorial form from Roman illusionism to Byzantine pattern, noting the changes that you see in the treatment of the spacial setting and the solidity of the human body. Consider the Dionysiac frieze (FIG. 10-15), Christ as the Good Shepherd (FIG. 11-15), The Miracle of the Loaves and the Fishes (FIG. 11-17), and the mosaic of Sant' Apollinare in Classe (FIG. 12-12).

1. The apse mosaics of San Vitale have been said to embody the Byzantine ideal of "sacred kingship." What iconographic features of the mosaics illustrate this concept?

1. Select a Byzantine mosaic or painting from the Early, Middle and Late periods. What features do they have in common that makes them Byzantine?

1. Discuss the development of Byzantine architecture considering Hagia Sophia (FIGS. 12-3 -- 12-5), Hosias Loukas (FIGS. 12-18 to 12-20), and the Church Of Saint Catherine In Thessaloniki (FIG. 12-30). In what way are these buildings related to each other and in what ways is each different?

1. Compare the scenes from the Paris Psalter (FIG. 12-28) and Rublev's Old Testament Trinity (FIG. 12-34) with the classical painting from the Ixion Room in Pompeii (FIG. 10-21). What similarities and differences do you see? Note the way space is depicted and the way the figures are modeled. What features of the Paris Psalter show the influence of classical painting?

1. Discuss the influence that the 3rd century frescoes of Dura Europas (Chapter 11) had on Byzantine Art. Identify three features in examples from both periods citing specific examples.

RESEARCHING, LOOKING CAREFULLY, AND ANALYSING

Write at least two pages in your analysis of the Anastasis fresco shown on FIG. 12-31. The important thing about doing an analysis like this is learning how to ask a lot of questions. First try to determine the subject matter, what is being represented, which is known as the iconography of the scene. You might look up the word “Anastasis” in the InfoTrac database to find out exactly what the scene is supposed to represent and who is supposed to have been present. Then look very carefully at the figures shown in the fresco and see if you can figure out who is represented. Identify as many figures as you can. Who is in the center, and what kind of form surrounds him? Who are the figures who hold out their hands to him, and what do the positions of all three figures tell you about what is going on? What types of figures are represented in the groups on either side? What clues can their clothing and hair give you to their identity. Next describe the setting. What is on the top around the grouped figures? Then look at the lower portion of the fresco. What are the two figures coming out of? What do you see on the ground between them? What clues do all these objects give you to where the scene is taking place? What is the meaning of this particular grouping of figures? Where might the painting have been placed? What does the almond shape of the frame and the figure below it tell you about the placement? What is the symbolic meaning of the narrative?

You can learn more about the work and where it was done by doing a formal analysis of the style of the work itself. Analyze the image using the terms you learned earlier: form and composition, material and technique, line and color, space, mass and volume, perspective and foreshortening Note particularly how the formal elements create the sense of motion or stability, and that help to create the sense of space or lack of it. What does your formal analysis tell you about the style of the work? And what does the style tell you about the milieu in which it was created.

The iconographic analysis helps you understand the subject that was represented and the formal analysis helps you judge how effectively the artist represented the scene.

Your next task it to deal with the meaning of the things that you have observed about the work. Who might it have been painted for, and what do you think the scene would have meant for them?

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