Chapter 2 “Mysterious Influence”
People do strange things for seemingly no good reason. Mesmer-fluid
Some believe the media are all-powerful…others believe the media have little influence (23)
The truth is somewhere in between
Myth #1 – Magic Bullets
-Behaviorism (Pavlov)
-Hidden Meanings
Myth #2 – The Rational Citizen
-Information Processing Model
-Recipient is rational
Law of Cognitive Response
If we were rational citizens, there would be no need for the book.
-Researchers have found that the mass media can have strong effects under certain identifiable conditions (28)
Example: A heavy does of car ads = wanting a car
Single-source data: If you see more ads from one brand as opposed to its competitor. Strong ads increase sales.
Hearing only one side of an issue – we are likely to adhere mindlessly to what we are being told.
Law for determining the effectiveness of a tactic (31)
-The target thinks in a manner agreeable to the communicator’s point of view.
-Promote positive thoughts
Conclusion:
-Instructions
-Purpose of book
Chapter 3 “Mindless Propaganda, Thoughtful Persuasion” (33-40)
Six facts that professional persuaders have learned (merchandise placed at the end of the aisle or near the checkout aisle is more likely to be purchased)
Why do these techniques work?
We don’t think about the reasons we make the decisions we do. Impulse buys.
We respond to propaganda with little thought.
Research:
Langer
Preston
We can also be influenced when we are being thoughtful.
-Panhandler example
Peripheral vs. central routes to persuasion (35)
What determines which route will be adopted?
Petty & Cacioppo – the recipient’s motivation (whether it affects you personally)
-comprehensive exam example
Cognitive misers (38)
“Modern propaganda promotes the use of the peripheral route to persuasion and is designed to take advantage of the limited processing capabilities of the cognitive miser.” (38-39)
Essential dilemma of modern democracy –
Antidote to the dilemma is not simple. Options -
Chapter 4 “The Rationalizing Animal”
“We humans like to think of ourselves as rational animals.”
-Marian Keech example
Her group believed the world would end on December 21. They kept to their beliefs and their small group.
The group publicized their failed prophecy. They felt motivated to attract followers.
=Theory of cognitive dissonance – when a person simultaneously holds two inconsistent cognitions (“doublethink” in 1984)
“When our self-esteem has been threatened by our own past behavior, we all have a powerful tendency to become rationalizing animals” (42)
-Frank, the smoker,
-Colinga, California
Rationalization trap – steps
“The way to reduce that guilt…(45)
“even a penny will help”
War propaganda
What is the antidote to the rationalization trap (47)
Chapter 5 “The Four Strategems of Influence”
Opens with examples of effective persuasion
-Abraham Lincoln – unpopular president
-Rush Limbaugh – radio talk show host whose popularity soared
-Paul Ingram – successful man arrested for sexually molesting his two daughters (admitted to it even though there was no evidence). His interrogation team convinced him.
4 Stratagems used by “brokers of persuasion”
1. pre-persuasion
2. source credibility
3. construct and deliver a targeted message
4. emotions
History: Aristotle’s ethos, pathos logos
Examples from the beginning in more detail:
-Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (53) – “Four score and seven years ago” = signing of the Declaration of Independence in 1776 = pre-persuasion tactic
Played on the emotions of the audience
-Rush Limbaugh uses labeling/name-calling, repetition of rumors, group pride
-Paul Ingram – situation where claiming sex abuse was rewarded with attention; therapy sessions.
“The primary purpose of propaganda is to get you to like the communicator and agree with the message” (65).
Conclusion: two sets of questions for distinguishing propaganda from fair and deliberate persuasion
“When a propagandist unscrupulously plays on our feelings of insecurity, or exploits our darkest fears, of offers fake home, exploration and inquiry stop” (66).
Section II: Pre-persuasion: Setting the Stage for Effective Influence
Chapter 6 “Words of Influence”
Opening example of “trail mix” with candy.
-Sociologist Daryl Bem – analysis of words and slogans in ads
Brand names
We believe there is a major difference among brands.
The way an object is described directs our thoughts (72).
-75% lean vs. 25% fat
Glittering generalities – “purr” words – words that have positive connotation – but ambiguous in context
Words can be used to define problems and thus create societal and personal needs.
Ex.
Politicians interpret social problems and invent national agenda by naming them: Cold War, War on Drugs
William Lutz – doublespeak
George Orwell – Newspeak
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Ex: The power of a label in an educational setting (77)
Ex. Male and female experiment where expectations created reality (79)
“The ability to manipulate words and concepts in our head – that is the ability to think – is a uniquely human characteristic” (79).
Joseph Goebbels
Chapter 7 “Pictures in Our Heads”
Walter Lippman – to what extent do we let our fictions guide our thoughts and actions?
“He contended that the mass media paint an imagined world and that the ‘pictures in our heads’ derived from the media influence what men and women will do and say at any particular moment” (80).
Television is grossly misleading as a representation of reality (80)
George Gerbner’s studies
-statistics
-results
-the wrong person is never in jail at the end of the show
-television promotes consumerism
-correlation between television and beliefs (not causal)
Political psychologists Iyengar and Kinder – studies on the news
Synopsis:
“The content of mass media sets the public’s political and social agenda.”
Goebbels: “This is the secret of propaganda: Those who are to be persuaded by it should be completely immersed in the ideas of the propaganda, without ever noticing that they are being immersed in it” (87).
Cohen: the media doesn’t tell us what to think, but it tells us what to think about.
Chapter 9 “A Questionable Persuasion”
Hypothetical: Program A/Program B
“People dislike losses and seek to avoid them” (94)
Skip the breast exam example – awkward
Question asking can be a form of pre-persuasion (95). Subtle changes in the wording of a question can produce dramatically different responses.
-Gerry Spence, trial attorney, claims that a well-phrased question may contain more persuasive information that the answer to the question.
Example-Guccione
-Elizabeth Loftus – how leading questions can influence eyewitness testimony.
-Example of pain reliever chart (see book)
“Question-asking can be a powerful persuasion device because questions structure our decision-making process (99).
-Examples of how politician avoid answering questions
Chapter 10 “The Power of Decoys”
X
Chapter 11 “The Psychology of Factoids”
Opens with a mysterious “gas attack” in a town in Illinois
The gasser was a factoid.
They define factoid as an assertion of fact that is not backed up by evidence, usually because that fact is false of because evidence in support of the assertion cannot be obtained. (Rumors, gossip, urban legends, libel, slander, hearsay)
Claim: Factoids are common (105).
-Examples: War of the Worlds; Paul McCartney; Susan Smith
“Today entire newspapers, magazines, and television programs, under the guise of presenting ‘news,’ are devoted to inventing and circulating believable rumors (106).
Flaming is the Internet term for vicious attacks and unfounded rumors.
Daniel Wegner and his colleagues conducted a series of simple experiments-
-newspaper headlines: candidates linked with a directly incriminating headline were perceived more negatively. Source made little difference.
Factoids function as a form of pre-persuasion; they create social reality (113).
Evidence law-
Students in one of their courses (118)
Method for dealing with potential factoids: begin questioning and confronting the makers of factoids directly.